The Malay Archipelago Volume 1

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Since these lines were written, his noble spirit has passed away.
But though, by those who knew him not, he may be sneered at as an
enthusiastic adventurer, abused as a hard-hearted despot, the universal
testimony of everyone who came in contact with him in his adopted
country, whether European, Malay, or Dyak, will be, that Rajah Brooke
was a great, a wise, and a good ruler; a true and faithful friend--
a man to be admired for his talents, respected for his honesty and
courage, and loved for his genuine hospitality, his kindness of
disposition, and his tenderness of heart.

CHAPTER VII.

JAVA

I SPENT three months and a half in Java, from July 18th to
October 31st, 1861, and shall briefly describe my own movements,
and my observations of the people and the natural history of the
country. To all those who wish to understand how the Dutch now
govern Java, and how it is that they are enabled to derive a
large annual revenue from it, while the population increases, and
the inhabitants are contented, I recommend the study of Mr.
Money's excellent and interesting work, "How to Manage a Colony."
The main facts and conclusions of that work I most heartily
concur in, and I believe that the Dutch system is the very best
that can be adopted, when a European nation conquers or otherwise
acquires possession of a country inhabited by an industrious but
semi-barbarous people. In my account of Northern Celebes, I shall
show how successfully the same system has been applied to a
people in a very different state of civilization from the
Javanese; and in the meanwhile will state in the fewest words
possible what that system is.

The mode of government now adopted in Java is to retain the whole
series of native rulers, from the village chief up to princes,
who, under the name of Regents, are the heads of districts about
the size of a small English county. With each Regent is placed a
Dutch Resident, or Assistant Resident, who is considered to be
his "elder brother," and whose "orders" take the form of
"recommendations," which are, however, implicitly obeyed. Along
with each Assistant Resident is a Controller, a kind of inspector
of all the lower native rulers, who periodically visits every
village in the district, examines the proceedings of the native
courts, hears complaints against the head-men or other native
chiefs, and superintends the Government plantations. This brings
us to the "culture system," which is the source of all the wealth
the Dutch derive from Java, and is the subject of much abuse in
this country because it is the reverse of "free trade." To
understand its uses and beneficial effects, it is necessary first
to sketch the common results of free European trade with
uncivilized peoples.

Natives of tropical climates have few wants, and, when these are
supplied, are disinclined to work for superfluities without some
strong incitement. With such a people the introduction of any new
or systematic cultivation is almost impossible, except by the
despotic orders of chiefs whom they have been accustomed to obey,
as children obey their parents. The free competition of European
traders, however introduces two powerful inducements to exertion.
Spirits or opium is a temptation too strong for most savages to
resist, and to obtain these he will sell whatever he has, and
will work to get more. Another temptation he cannot resist, is
goods on credit. The trader offers him bay cloths, knives, gongs,
guns, and gunpowder, to be paid for by some crop perhaps not yet
planted, or some product yet in the forest. He has not sufficient
forethought to take only a moderate quantity, and not enough
energy to work early and late in order to get out of debt; and
the consequence is that he accumulates debt upon debt, and often
remains for years, or for life, a debtor and almost a slave. This
is a state of things which occurs very largely in every part of
the world in which men of a superior race freely trade with men
of a lower race. It extends trade no doubt for a time, but it
demoralizes the native, checks true civilization--and does not
lead to any permanent increase in the wealth of the country; so
that the European government of such a country must be carried on
at a loss.

The system introduced by the Dutch was to induce the people,
through their chiefs, to give a portion of their till, to the
cultivation of coffee, sugar, and other valuable products. A
fixed rate of wages--low indeed, but, about equal to that of all
places where European competition has not artificially raised it-
-was paid to the labourers engaged in clearing the ground and
forming the plantations under Government superintendence. The
produce is sold to the Government at a low, fixed price. Out of
the net profit a percentage goes to the chiefs, and the remainder
is divided among the workmen. This surplus in good years is
something considerable. On the whole, the people are well fed and
decently clothed, and have acquired habits of steady industry and
the art of scientific cultivation, which must be of service to
them in the future. It must be remembered, that the Government
expended capital for years before any return was obtained; and if
they now derive a large revenue, it is in a way which is far less
burthensome, and far more beneficial to the people, than any tax
that could be levied.

But although the system may be a good one, and as well adapted to
the development of arts and industry in a half civilized people
as it is to the material advantage of the governing country, it
is not pretended that in practice it is perfectly carried out.
The oppressive and servile relations between chiefs and people,
which have continued for perhaps a thousand years, cannot be at
once abolished; and some evil must result from those relations,
until the spread of education and the gradual infusion of
European blood causes it naturally and insensibly to disappear.
It is said that the Residents, desirous of showing a large
increase in the products of their districts, have sometimes
pressed the people to such continued labour on the plantations
that their rice crops have been materially diminished, and famine
has been the result. If this has happened, it is certainly not a
common thing, and is to be set down to the abuse of the system,
by the want of judgment, or want of humanity in the Resident.

A tale has lately been written in Holland, and translated into
English, entitled "Max Havelaar; or, the "Coffee Auctions of the
Dutch Trading Company," and with our usual one-sidedness in all
relating to the Dutch Colonial System, this work has been
excessively praised, both for its own merits, and for its
supposed crushing exposure of the iniquities of the Dutch
government of Java. Greatly to my surprise, I found it a very
tedious and long-winded story, full of rambling digressions; and
whose only point is to show that the Dutch Residents and
Assistant Residents wink at the extortions of the native princes;
and that in some districts the natives have to do work without
payment, and have their goods taken away from them without
compensation. Every statement of this kind is thickly
interspersed with italics and capital letters; but as the names
are all fictitious, and neither dates, figures, nor details are
ever given, it is impossible to verify or answer them. Even if
not exaggerated, the facts stated are not nearly so bad as those
of the oppression by free-trade indigo-planters, and torturing by
native tax-gatherers under British rule in India, with which the
readers of English newspapers were familiar a few years ago. Such
oppression, however, is not fairly to be imputed in either case
to the particular form of government, but is rather due to the
infirmity of human nature, and to the impossibility of at once
destroying all trace of ages of despotism on the one side, and of
slavish obedience to their chiefs on the other.

It must be remembered, that the complete establishment of the
Dutch power in Java is much more recent than that of our rule in
India, and that there have been several changes of government,
and in the mode of raising revenue. The inhabitants have been so
recently under the rule of their native princes, that it is not
easy at once to destroy the excessive reverence they feel for
their old masters, or to diminish the oppressive exactions which
the latter have always been accustomed to make. There is,
however, one grand test of the prosperity, and even of the
happiness, of a community, which we can apply here--the rate of
increase of the population.

It is universally admitted that when a country increases rapidly
in population, the people cannot be very greatly oppressed or
very badly governed. The present system of raising a revenue by
the cultivation of coffee and sugar, sold to Government at a
fixed price, began in 1832. Just before this, in 1826, the
population by census was 5,500,000, while at the beginning of the
century it was estimated at 3,500,000. In 1850, when the
cultivation system had been in operation eighteen years, the
population by census was over 9,500,000, or an increase of 73 per
cent in twenty-four years. At the last census, in 1865, it
amounted to 14,168,416, an increase of very nearly 50 per cent in
fifteen years--a rate which would double the population in about
twenty-six years. As Java (with Madura) contains about 38,500
geographical square miles, this will give an average of 368
persons to the square mile, just double that of the populous and
fertile Bengal Presidency as given in Thornton's Gazetteer of
India, and fully one-third more than that of Great Britain and
Ireland at the last Census. If, as I believe, this vast
population is on the whole contented and happy, the Dutch
Government should consider well before abruptly changing a system
which has led to such great results.

Taking it as a whole, and surveying it front every point of view,
Java is probably the very finest and most interesting tropical
island in the world. It is not first in size, but it is more than
600 miles long, and from 60 to 120 miles wide, and in area is
nearly equal to England; and it is undoubtedly the most fertile,
the most productive, and the most populous island within the
tropics. Its whole surface is magnificently varied with mountain
and forest scenery. It possesses thirty-eight volcanic mountains,
several of which rise to ten or twelve thousand feet high. Some
of these are in constant activity, and one or other of them
displays almost every phenomenon produced by the action of
subterranean fires, except regular lava streams, which never
occur in Java. The abundant moisture and tropical heat of the
climate causes these mountains to be clothed with luxuriant
vegetation, often to their very summits, while forests and
plantations cover their lower slopes. The animal productions,
especially the birds and insects, are beautiful and varied, and
present many peculiar forms found nowhere else upon the globe.

The soil throughout the island is exceedingly fertile, and all
the productions of the tropics, together with many of the
temperate zones, can be easily cultivated. Java too possesses a
civilization, a history and antiquities of its own, of great
interest. The Brahminical religion flourished in it from an epoch
of unknown antiquity until about the year 1478, when that of
Mahomet superseded it. The former religion was accompanied by a
civilization which has not been equalled by the conquerors; for,
scattered through the country, especially in the eastern part of
it, are found buried in lofty forests, temples, tombs, and
statues of great beauty and grandeur; and the remains of
extensive cities, where the tiger, the rhinoceros, and the wild
bull now roam undisturbed. A modern civilization of another type
is now spreading over the land. Good roads run through the
country from end to end; European and native rulers work
harmoniously together; and life and property are as well secured
as in the best governed states of Europe. I believe, therefore,
that Java may fairly claim to be the finest tropical island in
the world, and equally interesting to the tourist seeking after
new and beautiful scenes; to the naturalist who desires to
examine the variety and beauty of tropical nature; or to the
moralist and the politician who want to solve the problem of how
man may be best governed under new and varied conditions.

The Dutch mail steamer brought me from Ternate to Sourabaya, the
chief town and port in the eastern part of Java, and after a
fortnight spent in packing up and sending off my last
collections, I started on a short journey into the interior.
Travelling in Java is very luxurious but very expensive, the only
way being to hire or borrow a carriage, and then pay half a crown
a mile for post-horses, which are changed at regular posts every
six miles, and will carry you at the rate of ten miles an hour
from one end of the island to the other. Bullock carts or coolies
are required to carry all extra baggage. As this kind of
travelling world not suit my means, I determined on making only a
short journey to the district at the foot of Mount Arjuna, where
I was told there were extensive forests, and where I hoped to be
able to make some good collections. The country for many miles
behind Sourabaya is perfectly flat and everywhere cultivated;
being a delta or alluvial plain, watered by many branching
streams. Immediately around the town the evident signs of wealth
and of an industrious population were very pleasing; but as we
went on, the constant succession of open fields skirted by rows
of bamboos, with here and there the white buildings and a tall
chimney of a sugar-mill, became monotonous. The roads run in
straight lines for several miles at a stretch, and are bordered
by rows of dusty tamarind-trees. At each mile there are little
guardhouses, where a policeman is stationed; and there is a
wooden gong, which by means of concerted signals may be made to
convey information over the country with great rapidity. About
every six or seven miles is the post-house, where the horses are
changed as quickly as were those of the mail in the old coaching
days in England.

I stopped at Modjokerto, a small town about forty miles south of
Sourabaya, and the nearest point on the high road to the district
I wished to visit. I had a letter of introduction to Mr. Ball, an
Englishman, long resident in Java and married to a Dutch lady;
and he kindly invited me to stay with him until I could fix on a
place to suit me. A Dutch Assistant Resident as well as a Regent
or native Javanese prince lived here. The town was neat, and had
a nice open grassy space like a village green, on which stood a
magnificent fig-tree (allied to the Banyan of India, but more
lofty), under whose shade a kind of market is continually held,
and where the inhabitants meet together to lounge and chat. The
day after my arrival, Mr. Ball drove me over to the village of
Modjo-agong, where he was building a house and premises for the
tobacco trade, which is carried on here by a system of native
cultivation and advance purchase, somewhat similar to the indigo
trade in British India. On our way we stayed to look at a
fragment of the ruins of the ancient city of Modjo-pahit,
consisting of two lofty brick masses, apparently the sides of a
gateway. The extreme perfection and beauty of the brickwork
astonished me. The bricks are exceedingly fine and hard, with
sharp angles and true surfaces. They are laid with great
exactness, without visible mortar or cement, yet somehow fastened
together so that the joints are hardly perceptible, and sometimes
the two surfaces coalesce in a most incomprehensible manner.

Such admirable brickwork I have never seen before or since. There
was no sculpture here, but an abundance of bold projections and
finely-worked mouldings. Traces of buildings exist for many miles
in every direction, and almost every road and pathway shows a
foundation of brickwork beneath it--the paved roads of the old
city. In the house of the Waidono or district chief at Modjo-
agong, I saw a beautiful figure carved in high relief out of a
block of lava, and which had been found buried in the ground near
the village. On my expressing a wish to obtain some such
specimen, Mr. B. asked the chief for it, and much to my surprise
he immediately gave it me. It represented the Hindu goddess
Durga, called in Java, Lora Jonggrang (the exalted virgin). She
has eight arms, and stands on the back of a kneeling bull. Her
lower right hand holds the tail of the bull, while the
corresponding left hand grasps the hair of a captive, Dewth
Mahikusor, the personification of vice, who has attempted to slay
her bull. He has a cord round his waist, and crouches at her feet
in an attitude of supplication. The other hands of the goddess
hold, on her right side, a double hook or small anchor, a broad
straight sword, and a noose of thick cord; on her left, a girdle
or armlet of large beads or shells, an unstrung bow, and a
standard or war flag. This deity was a special favourite among
the old Javanese, and her image is often found in the ruined
temples which abound in the eastern part of the island.

The specimen I had obtained was a small one, about two feet high,
weighing perhaps a hundredweight; and the next day we had it
conveyed to Modjo-Kerto to await my return to Sourabaya. Having
decided to stay some time at Wonosalem, on the lower slopes of
the Arjuna Mountain, where I was informed I should find forest
and plenty of game, I had first to obtain a recommendation from
the Assistant Resident to the Regent, and then an order from the
Regent to the Waidono; and when after a week's delay I arrived
with my baggage and men at Modjo-agong, I found them all in the
midst of a five days' feast, to celebrate the circumcision of the
Waidono's younger brother and cousin, and had a small room in an
on outhouse given me to stay in. The courtyard and the great open
reception-shed were full of natives coming and going and making
preparations for a feast which was to take place at midnight, to
which I was invited, but preferred going to bed. A native band,
or Gamelang, was playing almost all the evening, and I had a good
opportunity of seeing the instruments and musicians. The former
are chiefly gongs of various sizes, arranged in sets of from
eight to twelve, on low wooden frames. Each set is played by one
performer with one or two drumsticks. There are also some very
large gongs, played singly or in pairs, and taking the place of
our drums and kettledrums. Other instruments are formed by broad
metallic bars, supported on strings stretched across frames; and
others again of strips of bamboo similarly placed and producing
the highest notes. Besides these there were a flute and a curious
two-stringed violin, requiring in all twenty-four performers.
There was a conductor, who led off and regulated the time, and
each performer took his part, coming in occasionally with a few
bars so as to form a harmonious combination. The pieces played
were long and complicated, and some of the players were mere
boys, who took their parts with great precision. The general
effect was very pleasing, but, owing to the similarity of most of
the instruments, more like a gigantic musical box than one of our
bands; and in order to enjoy it thoroughly it is necessary to
watch the large number of performers who are engaged in it. The
next morning, while I was waiting for the men and horses who were
to take me and my baggage to my destination, the two lads, who
were about fourteen years old, were brought out, clothed in a
sarong from the waist downwards, and having the whole body
covered with yellow powder, and profusely decked with white
blossom in wreaths, necklaces, and armlets, looking at first
sight very like savage brides. They were conducted by two priests
to a bench placed in front of the house in the open air, and the
ceremony of circumcision was then performed before the assembled
crowd.

The road to Wonosalem led through a magnificent forest in the
depths of which we passed a fine ruin of what appeared to have
been a royal tomb or mausoleum. It is formed entirely of stone,
and elaborately carved. Near the base is a course of boldly
projecting blocks, sculptured in high relief, with a series of
scenes which are probably incidents in the life of the defunct.
These are all beautifully executed, some of the figures of
animals in particular, being easily recognisable and very
accurate. The general design, as far as the ruined state of the
upper part will permit of its being seen, is very good, effect
being given by an immense number and variety of projecting or
retreating courses of squared stones in place of mouldings. The
size of this structure is about thirty feet square by twenty
high, and as the traveller comes suddenly upon it on a small
elevation by the roadside, overshadowed by gigantic trees,
overrun with plants and creepers, and closely backed by the
gloomy forest, he is struck by the solemnity and picturesque
beauty of the scene, and is led to ponder on the strange law of
progress, which looks so like retrogression, and which in so many
distant parts of the world has exterminated or driven out a
highly artistic and constructive race, to make room for one
which, as far as we can judge, is very far its inferior.

Few Englishmen are aware of the number and beauty of the
architectural remains in Java. They have never been popularly
illustrated or described, and it will therefore take most persons
by surprise to learn that they far surpass those of Central
America, perhaps even those of India. To give some idea of these
ruins, and perchance to excite wealthy amateurs to explore them
thoroughly and obtain by photography an accurate record of their
beautiful sculptures before it is too late, I will enumerate the
most important, as briefly described in Sir Stamford Raffles'
"History of Java."

BRAMBANAM.--Near the centre of Java, between the native capitals
of Djoko-kerta and Surakerta, is the village of Brambanam, near
which are abundance of ruins, the most important being the
temples of Loro-Jongran and Chandi Sewa. At Loro-Jongran there
were twenty separate buildings, six large and fourteen small
temples. They are now a mass of ruins, but the largest temples
are supposed to have been ninety feet high. They were all
constructed of solid stone, everywhere decorated with carvings
and bas-reliefs, and adorned with numbers of statues, many of
which still remain entire. At Chandi Sewa, or the "Thousand
Temples," are many fine colossal figures. Captain Baker, who
surveyed these ruins, said he had never in his life seen "such
stupendous and finished specimens of human labour, and of the
science and taste of ages long since forgot, crowded together in
so small a compass as in this spot." They cover a space of nearly
six hundred feet square, and consist of an outer row of eighty-
four small temples, a second row of seventy-six, a third of
sixty-four, a fourth of forty-four, and the fifth forming an
inner parallelogram of twenty-eight, in all two hundred and
ninety-six small temples; disposed in five regular
parallelograms. In the centre is a large cruciform temple
surrounded by lofty flights of steps richly ornamented with
sculpture, and containing many apartments. The tropical
vegetation has ruined most of the smaller temples, but some
remain tolerably perfect, from which the effect of the whole may
be imagined.

About half a mile off is another temple, called Chandi Kali
Bening, seventy-two feet square and sixty feet high, in very fine
preservation, and covered with sculptures of Hindu mythology
surpassing any that exist in India, other ruins of palaces,
halls, and temples, with abundance of sculptured deities, are
found in the same neighbourhood.

BOROBODO.--About eighty miles westward, in the province of Kedu,
is the great temple of Borobodo. It is built upon a small hill,
and consists of a central dome and seven ranges of terraced walls
covering the slope of the hill and forming open galleries each
below the other, and communicating by steps and gateways. The
central dome is fifty feet in diameter; around it is a triple
circle of seventy-two towers, and the whole building is six
hundred and twenty feet square, and about one hundred feet high.
In the terrace walls are niches containing cross-legged figures
larger than life to the number of about four hundred, and both
sides of all the terrace walls are covered with bas-reliefs
crowded with figures, and carved in hard stone and which must
therefore occupy an extent of nearly three miles in length! The
amount of human labour and skill expended on the Great Pyramid of
Egypt sinks into insignificance when compared with that required
to complete this sculptured hill-temple in the interior of Java.

GUNONG PRAU.--About forty miles southwest of Samarang, on a
mountain called Gunong Prau, an extensive plateau is covered with
ruins. To reach these temples, four flights of stone steps were
made up the mountain from opposite directions, each flight
consisting of more than a thousand steps. Traces of nearly four
hundred temples have been found here, and many (perhaps all) were
decorated with rich and delicate sculptures. The whole country
between this and Brambanam, a distance of sixty miles, abounds
with ruins, so that fine sculptured images may be seen lying in
the ditches, or built into the walls of enclosures.

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