The Malay Archipelago Volume 1

b >> by Alfred Russell Wallace >> The Malay Archipelago Volume 1

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In Lombock. In Flores. In Timor.
Javan birds . . . . . . . . . . .33 23 11
Closely allied to Javan birds . . 1 5 6
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 28 17

Australian birds . . . . . . . . . 4 5 10
Closely allied to Australian birds 3 9 26
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 14 36

We now see that the total number of birds which seem to have been
derived from Java and Australia is very nearly equal, but there is
this remarkable difference between the two series: that whereas the
larger proportion by far of the Java set are identical with those
still inhabiting that country, an almost equally large proportion of
the Australian set are distinct, though often very closely allied
species. It is to be observed also, that these representative or
allied species diminish in number as they recede from Australia, while
they increase in number as they recede from Java. There are two
reasons for this, one being that the islands decrease rapidly in size
from Timor to Lombock, and can therefore support a decreasing number
of species; the other and the more important is, that the distance of
Australia from Timor cuts off the supply of fresh immigrants, and has
thus allowed variation to have full play; while the vicinity of
Lombock to Bali and Java has allowed a continual influx of fresh
individuals which, by crossing with the earlier immigrants, has
checked variation.

To simplify our view of the derivative origin of the birds of these
islands let us treat them as a whole, and thus perhaps render more
intelligible their respective relations to Java and Australia.

The Timor group of islands contains:

Javan birds . . . . . . . 36 Australian birds . . . 13
Closely allied species . . 11 Closely allied species . . 35
Derived from Java . . . . 47 Derived from Australia . . . 48

We have here a wonderful agreement in the number of birds belonging to
Australian and Javanese groups, but they are divided in exactly a
reverse manner, three-fourths of the Javan birds being identical
species and one-fourth representatives, while only one-fourth of the
Australian forms are identical and three-fourths representatives. This
is the most important fact which we can elicit from a study of the
birds of these islands, since it gives us a very complete clue to much
of their past history.

Change of species is a slow process--on that we are all agreed, though
we may differ about how it has taken place. The fact that the
Australian species in these islands have mostly changed, while the
Javan species have almost all remained unchanged, would therefore
indicate that the district was first peopled from Australia. But, for
this to have been the case, the physical conditions must have been
very different from what they are now. Nearly three hundred miles of
open sea now separate Australia from Timor, which island is connected
with Java by a chain of broken land divided by straits which are
nowhere more than about twenty miles wide. Evidently there are now
great facilities for the natural productions of Java to spread over
and occupy the whole of these islands, while those of Australia would
find very great difficulty in getting across. To account for the
present state of things, we should naturally suppose that Australia
was once much more closely connected with Timor than it is at present;
and that this was the case is rendered highly probable by the fact of
a submarine bank extending along all the north and west coast of
Australia, and at one place approaching within twenty miles of the
coast of Timor. This indicates a recent subsidence of North Australia,
which probably once extended as far as the edge of this bank, between
which and Timor there is an unfathomed depth of ocean.

I do not think that Timor was ever actually connected with Australia,
because such a large number of very abundant and characteristic groups
of Australian birds are quite absent, and not a single Australian
mammal has entered Timor-- which would certainly not have been the case
had the lands been actually united. Such groups as the bower birds
(Ptilonorhynchus), the black and red cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus), the
blue wrens (Malurus), the crowshrikes (Cracticus), the Australian
shrikes (Falcunculus and Colluricincla), and many others, which abound
all over Australia, would certainly have spread into Timor if it had
been united to that country, or even if for any long time it had
approached nearer to it than twenty miles. Neither do any of the most
characteristic groups of Australian insects occur in Timor; so that
everything combines to indicate that a strait of the sea has always
separated it from Australia, but that at one period this strait was
reduced to a width of about twenty miles.

But at the time when this narrowing of the sea took place in one
direction, there must have been a greater separation at the other end
of the chain, or we should find more equality in the numbers of
identical and representative species derived from each extremity. It
is true that the widening of the strait at the Australian end by
subsidence, would, by putting a stop to immigration and intercrossing
of individuals from the mother country, have allowed full scope to the
causes which have led to the modification of the species; while the
continued stream of immigrants from Java, would, by continual
intercrossing, check such modification. This view will not, however,
explain all the facts; for the character of the fauna of the Timorese
group is indicated as well by the forms which are absent from it as by
those which it contains, and is by this kind of evidence shown to be
much more Australian than Indian. No less than twenty-nine genera, all
more or less abundant in Java, and most of which range over a wide
area, are altogether absent; while of the equally diffused Australian
genera only about fourteen are wanting. This would clearly indicate
that there has been, until recently, a wide separation from Java; and
the fact that the islands of Bali and Lombock are small, and are
almost wholly volcanic, and contain a smaller number of modified forms
than the other islands, would point them out as of comparatively
recent origin. A wide arm of the sea probably occupied their place at
the time when Timor was in the closest proximity to Australia; and as
the subterranean fires were slowly piling up the now fertile islands
of Bali and Lombock, the northern shores of Australia would be sinking
beneath the ocean. Some such changes as have been here indicated,
enable us to understand how it happens, that though the birds of this
group are on the whole almost as much Indian as Australian, yet the
species which are peculiar to the group are mostly Australian in
character; and also why such a large number of common Indian forms
which extend through Java to Bali, should not have transmitted a
single representative to the island further east.

The Mammalia of Timor as well as those of the other islands of the
group are exceedingly scanty, with the exception of bats. These last
are tolerably abundant, and no doubt many more remain to be discovered.
Out of fifteen species known from Timor, nine are found also in Java,
or the islands west of it; three are Moluccan species, most of which
are also found in Australia, and the rest are peculiar to Timor.

The land mammals are only seven in number, as follows: 1. The common
monkey, Macacus cynomolgus, which is found in all the Indo-Malayan
islands, and has spread from Java through Bali and Lombock to Timor.
This species is very frequent on the banks of rivers, and may have
been conveyed from island to island on trees carried down by hoods. 2.
Paradoxurus fasciatus; a civet cat, very common over a large part of
the Archipelago. 3. Felis megalotis; a tiger cat, said to be peculiar
to Timor, where it exists only in the interior, and is very rare. Its
nearest allies are in Java. 4. Cervus timoriensis; a deer, closely
allied to the Javan and Moluccan species, if distinct. 5. A wild pig,
Sus timoriensis; perhaps the same as some of the Moluccan species. 6.
A shrew mouse, Sorex tenuis; supposed to be peculiar to Timor. 7. An
Eastern opossum, Cuscus orientalis; found also in the Moluccas, if not
a distinct species.

The fact that not one of these species is Australia or nearly allied
to any Australian form, is strongly corroborative of the opinion that
Timor has never formed a part of that country; as in that case some
kangaroo or other marsupial animal would almost certainly be found
there. It is no doubt very difficult to account for the presence of
some of the few mammals that do exist in Timor, especially the tiger
cat and the deer. We must consider, however, that during thousands,
and perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, these islands and the seas
between them have been subjected to volcanic action. The land has been
raised and has sunk again; the straits have been narrowed or widened;
many of the islands may have been joined and dissevered again; violent
floods have again and again devastated the mountains and plains,
carrying out to sea hundreds of forest trees, as has often happened
during volcanic eruptions in Java; and it does not seem improbable
that once in a thousand, or ten thousand years, there should have
occurred such a favourable combination of circumstances as would lead
to the migration of two or three land animals from one island to
another. This is all that we need ask to account for the very scanty
and fragmentary group of Mammalia which now inhabit the large island
of Timor. The deer may very probably have been introduced by man, for
the Malays often keep tame fawns; and it may not require a thousand,
or even five hundred years, to establish new characters in an animal
removed to a country so different in climate and vegetation as is
Timor from the Moluccas. I have not mentioned horses, which are often
thought to be wild in Timor, because there are no grounds whatever for
such a belief. The Timor ponies have every one an owner, and are quite
as much domesticated animals as the cattle on a South American
hacienda.

I have dwelt at some length upon the origin of the Timorese fauna
because it appears to be a most interesting and instructive problem.
It is very seldom that we can trace the animals of a district so
clearly as we can in this case to two definite sources, and still
more rarely that they furnish such decisive evidence of the time, the
manner, and the proportions of their introduction. We have here a
group of Oceanic Islands in miniature--islands which have never formed
part of the adjacent lands, although so closely approaching them; and
their productions have the characteristics of true Oceanic islands
slightly modified. These characteristics are: the absence all Mammalia
except bats; and the occurrence of peculiar species of birds, insects,
and land shells, which, though found nowhere else, are plainly related
to those of the nearest land. Thus, we have an entire absence of
Australian mammals, and the presence of only a few stragglers from the
west which can be accounted for in the manner already indicated. Bats
are tolerably abundant.

Birds have many peculiar species, with a decided relationship to those
of the two nearest masses of land. The insects have similar relations
with the birds. As an example, four species of the Papilionidae are
peculiar to Timor, three others are also found in Java, and one in
Australia. Of the four peculiar species two are decided modifications
of Javanese forms, while the others seen allied to those of the
Moluccas and Celebes. The very few land shells known are all,
curiously enough, allied to or identical with Moluccan or Celebes
forms. The Pieridae (white and yellow butterflies) which wander more,
and from frequenting open grounds, are more liable to be blown out to
sea, seem about equally related to those of Java, Australia, and the
Moluccas.

It has been objected to in Mr. Darwin's theory, of Oceanic Islands
having never been connected with the mainland, that this would imply
that their animal population was a matter of chance; it has been
termed the "flotsam and jetsam theory," and it has been maintained
that nature does not work by the "chapter of accidents." But in the
case which I have here described, we have the most positive evidence
that such has been the mode of peopling the islands. Their
productions are of that miscellaneous character which we should
expect front such an origin; and to suppose that they have been
portions of Australia or of Java will introduce perfectly gratuitous
difficulties, and render it quite impossible to explain those curious
relations which the best known group of animals (the birds) have been
shown to exhibit. On the other hand, the depth of the surrounding
seas, the form of the submerged banks, and the volcanic character of
most of the islands, all point to an independent origin.

Before concluding, I must make one remark to avoid misapprehension.
When I say that Timor has never formed part of Australia, I refer only
to recent geological epochs. In Secondary or even Eocene or Miocene
times, Timor and Australia may have been connected; but if so, all
record of such a union has been lost by subsequent submergence, and in
accounting for the present land-inhabitants of any country we have
only to consider those changes which have occurred since its last
elevation above the waters since such last elevation, I feel confident
that Timor has not formed part of Australia.

CHAPTER XV.

CELEBES.

(MACASSAR, SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER, 1856.)

I LEFT Lombock on the 30th of August, and reached Macassar in
three days. It was with great satisfaction that I stepped on a
shore which I had been vainly trying to reach since February, and
where I expected to meet with so much that was new and
interesting.

The coast of this part of Celebes is low and flat, lined with
trees and villages so as to conceal the interior, except at
occasional openings which show a wide extent of care and marshy
rice-fields. A few hills of no great height were visible in the
background; but owing to the perpetual haze over the land at this
time of the year, I could nowhere discern the high central range
of the peninsula, or the celebrated peak of Bontyne at its
southern extremity. In the roadstead of Macassar there was a
fine 42-gun frigate, the guardship of the place, as well as a
small war steamer and three or four little cutters used for
cruising after the pirates which infest these seas. There were
also a few square-rigged trading-vessels, and twenty or thirty
native praus of various sizes. I brought letters of introduction to
a Dutch gentleman, Mr. Mesman, and also to a Danish shopkeeper,
who could both speak English and who promised to assist me in
finding a place to stay, suitable for my pursuits. In the
meantime, I went to a kind of clubhouse, in default of any hotel in
the place.

Macassar was the first Dutch town I had visited, and I found it
prettier and cleaner than any I had yet seen in the East. The
Dutch have some admirable local regulations. All European houses
must be kept well white-washed, and every person must, at four in
the afternoon, water the road in front of his house. The streets
are kept clear of refuse, and covered drains carry away all
impurities into large open sewers, into which the tide is
admitted at high-water and allowed to flow out when it has ebbed,
carrying all the sewage with it into the sea. The town consists
chiefly of one long narrow street along the seaside, devoted to
business, and principally occupied by the Dutch and Chinese
merchants' offices and warehouses, and the native shops or
bazaars. This extends northwards for more than a mile, gradually
merging into native houses often of a most miserable description,
but made to have a neat appearance by being all built up exactly
to the straight line of the street, and being generally backed by
fruit trees. This street is usually thronged with a native
population of Bugis and Macassar men, who wear cotton trousers
about twelve inches long, covering only from the hip to half-way
down the thigh, and the universal Malay sarong, of gay checked
colours, worn around the waist or across the shoulders in a
variety of ways. Parallel to this street run two short ones
which form the old Dutch town, and are enclosed by gates. These
consist of private houses, and at their southern end is the fort,
the church, and a road at right angles to the beach, containing
the houses of the Governor and of the principal officials. Beyond
the fort, again along the beach, is another long street of native
huts and many country-houses of the tradesmen and merchants. All
around extend the flat rice-fields, now bare and dry and
forbidding, covered with dusty stubble and weeds. A few months
back these were a mass of verdure, and their barren appearance at
this season offered a striking contrast to the perpetual crops on
the same kind of country in Lombock and Bali, where the seasons
are exactly similar, but where an elaborate system of irrigation
produces the effect of a perpetual spring.

The day after my arrival I paid a visit of ceremony to the
Governor, accompanied by my friend the Danish merchant, who spoke
excellent English. His Excellency was very polite, and offered me
every facility for travelling about the country and prosecuting
my researches in natural history. We conversed in French, which
all Dutch officials speak very well.

Finding it very inconvenient and expensive to stay in the town,
I removed at the end of a week to a little bamboo house, kindly
offered me by Mr. Mesman. It was situated about two miles away,
on a small coffee plantation and farm, and about a mile beyond
Mr. M.'s own country-house. It consisted of two rooms raised
about seven feet above the ground, the lower part being partly
open (and serving excellently to skin birds in) and partly used
as a granary for rice. There was a kitchen and other outhouses,
and several cottages nearby, occupied by men in Mr. M.'s employ.

After being settled a few days in my new house, I found that no
collections could be made without going much further into the
country. The rice-fields for some miles around resembled English
stubbles late in autumn, and were almost as unproductive of bird
or insect life. There were several native villages scattered
about, so embosomed in fruit trees that at a distance they looked
like clumps or patches of forest. These were my only collecting
places; but they produced a very limited number of species, and
were soon exhausted. Before I could move to any more promising
district it was necessary to obtain permission from the Rajah of
Goa, whose territories approach to within two miles of the town
of Macassar. I therefore presented myself at the Governor's
office and requested a letter to the Rajah, to claim his
protection, and permission to travel in his territories whenever
I might wish to do so. This was immediately granted, and a
special messenger was sent with me to carry the letter.

My friend Mr. Mesman kindly lent me a horse, and accompanied me
on my visit to the Rajah, with whom he was great friends. We
found his Majesty seated out of doors, watching the erection of a
new house. He was naked from the waist up, wearing only the usual
short trousers and sarong. Two chairs were brought out for us,
but all the chiefs and other natives were seated on the ground.
The messenger, squatting down at the Rajah's feet, produced the
letter, which was sewn up in a covering of yellow silk. It was
handed to one of the chief officers, who ripped it open and
returned it to the Rajah, who read it, and then showed it to Mr.
M., who both speaks and reads the Macassar language fluently, and
who explained fully what I required. Permission was immediately
granted me to go where I liked in the territories of Goa, but the
Rajah desired, that should I wish to stay any time at a place I
would first give him notice, in order that he might send someone
to see that no injury was done me. Some wine was then brought us,
and afterwards some detestable coffee and wretched sweetmeats,
for it is a fact that I have never tasted good coffee where
people grow it themselves.

Although this was the height of the dry season, and there was a
fine wind all day, it was by no means a healthy time of year. My
boy Ali had hardly been a day on shore when he was attacked by
fever, which put me to great inconvenience, as at the house where
I was staying, nothing could be obtained but at mealtime. After
having cured Ali, and with much difficulty got another servant to
cook for me, I was no sooner settled at my country abode than the
latter was attacked with the same disease; and, having a wife in
the town, left me. Hardly was he gone than I fell ill myself with
strong intermittent fever every other day. In about a week I got
over it, by a liberal use of quinine, when scarcely was I on my
legs than Ali again became worse than ever. Ali's fever attacked
him daily, but early in the morning he was pretty well, and then
managed to cook enough for me for the day. In a week I cured him,
and also succeeded in getting another boy who could cook and shoot,
and had no objection to go into the interior. His name was
Baderoon, and as he was unmarried and had been used to a roving
life, having been several voyages to North Australia to catch
trepang or "beche de mer", I was in hopes of being able to keep
him. I also got hold of a little impudent rascal of twelve or
fourteen, who could speak some Malay, to carry my gun or insect-
net and make himself generally useful. Ali had by this time
become a pretty good bird-skinner, so that I was fairly supplied
with servants.

I made many excursions into the country, in search of a good
station for collecting birds and insects. Some of the villages a
few miles inland are scattered about in woody ground which has
once been virgin forest, but of which the constituent trees have
been for the most part replaced by fruit trees, and particularly
by the large palm, Arenga saccharifera, from which wine and sugar
are made, and which also produces a coarse black fibre used for
cordage. That necessary of life, the bamboo, has also been
abundantly planted. In such places I found a good many birds,
among which were the fine cream-coloured pigeon, Carpophaga
luctuosa, and the rare blue-headed roller, Coracias temmincki,
which has a most discordant voice, and generally goes in pairs,
flying from tree to tree, and exhibiting while at rest that all-
in-a-heap appearance and jerking motion of the head and tail
which are so characteristic of the great Fissirostral group to
which it belongs. From this habit alone, the kingfishers, bee-
eaters, rollers, trogons, and South American puff-birds, might be
grouped together by a person who had observed them in a state of
nature, but who had never had an opportunity of examining their
form and structure in detail. Thousands of crows, rather smaller
than our rook, keep up a constant cawing in these plantations;
the curious wood-swallows (Artami), which closely resemble
swallows in their habits and flight but differ much in form and
structure, twitter from the tree-tops; while a lyre-tailed
drongo-shrike, with brilliant black plumage and milk-white eyes,
continually deceives the naturalist by the variety of its
unmelodious notes.

In the more shady parts butterflies were tolerably abundant; the
most common being species of Euplaea and Danais, which frequent
gardens and shrubberies, and owing to their weak flight are
easily captured. A beautiful pale blue and black butterfly, which
flutters along near the ground among the thickets, and settles
occasionally upon flowers, was one of the most striking; and
scarcely less so, was one with a rich orange band on a blackish
ground--these both belong to the Pieridae, the group that
contains our common white butterflies, although differing so much
from them in appearance. Both were quite new to European
naturalists. [The former has been named Eronia tritaea; the
latter Tachyris ithonae.] Now and then I extended my walks some
miles further, to the only patch of true forest I could find,
accompanied by my two boys with guns and insect-net. We used to
start early, taking our breakfast with us, and eating it wherever
we could find shade and water. At such times my Macassar boys
would put a minute fragment of rice and meat or fish on a leaf,
and lay it on a stone or stump as an offering to the deity of the
spot; for though nominal Mahometans the Macassar people retain
many pagan superstitions, and are but lax in their religious
observances. Pork, it is true, they hold in abhorrence, but will
not refuse wine when offered them, and consume immense quantities
of "sagueir," or palm-wine, which is about as intoxicating as
ordinary beer or cider. When well made it is a very refreshing
drink, and we often took a draught at some of the little sheds
dignified by the name of bazaars, which are scattered about the
country wherever there is any traffic.

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