The Dog

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There is a state of the orbit which requires some consideration. It is
connected with the muscles employed in mastication. Generally speaking,
the food of the dog requires no extraordinary degree of mastication, nor
is there usually any great time employed in this operation. That muscle
which is most employed in the comminution of the food, namely, the
temporal muscle, has its action very much limited by the position of the
bony socket of the eye; yet sufficient room is left for all the force
that can be required. In some dogs, either for purposes of offence or
defence, or the more effectual grasping of the prey, a sudden violent
exertion of muscular power, and a consequent contraction of the temporal
muscle, are requisite, but for which the imperfect socket of the orbit
does not seem to afford sufficient scope and room. There is an admirable
provision for this in the removal of a certain portion of the orbital
process of the frontal bone on the outer and upper part of the external
ridge, and the substitution of an elastic cartilage. This cartilage
momentarily yields to the swelling of the muscles; and then, by its
inherent elasticity, the external ridge of the orbit resumes its
pristine form. The orbit of the dog, the pig, and the cat, exhibits this
singular mechanism.

The horse is, to a certain extent, also an illustration of this. He
requires an extended field of vision to warn him of the approach of his
enemies in his wild state, and a direction of the orbits somewhat
forward to enable him to pursue with safety the headlong course to which
we sometimes urge him; and for this purpose his eyes are placed more
forward than those of cattle, sheep, or swine. That which Mr. Percivall
states of the horse is true of our other domesticated animals:

"The eyeball is placed within the anterior or more capacious part of
the orbit, nearer to the frontal than to the temporal side, with a
degree of prominence peculiar to the individual, and, within certain
limits, variable at his will."

In many of the carnivorous animals the orbit encroaches on the bones of
the face. A singular effect is also produced on the countenance, both
when the animal is growling over his prey and when he is devouring it.
The temporal muscle is violently acted upon; it presses upon the
cartilage that forms part of the external ridge; that again forces
itself upon and protrudes the eye, and hence the peculiar ferocity of
expression which is observed at that time. The victims of these
carnivorous animals are also somewhat provided against danger by the
acuteness of sight with which they are gifted. Adipose matter also
exists in a considerable quantity in the orbit of the eye, which enables
it to revolve by the slightest contraction of the muscles.

We should scarcely expect to meet with cases of fracture of the orbital
arch in the dog, because, in that animal, cartilage, or a
cartilago-ligamentous substance, occupies a very considerable part of
that arch; but I have again and again, among the cruelties that are
practised on the inferior creation, seen the cartilage partly, or even
entirely, torn asunder. I have never been able satisfactorily to
ascertain the existence of this during life; but I have found it on
those whom I have recommended to be destroyed on account of the brutal
usage which they had experienced. Blows somewhat higher, or on the thick
temporal muscle of this animal, will very rarely produce a fracture.

A few cases of disease in the eye may be interesting and useful.

'Case' I.--The eyes of a favourite spaniel were found inflamed and
impatient of light. Nothing wrong had been perceived on the preceding
day. No ulceration could be observed on the cornea, and there was but a
slight mucous discharge. An infusion of digitalis, with twenty times the
quantity of tepid water, was employed as a collyrium, and an aloetic
ball administered. On the following day the eyes were more inflamed, The
collyrium and the aloes were employed as before, and a seton inserted in
the poll.

Three or four days afterwards the redness was much diminished, the
discharge from the eye considerably lessened, and the dog was sent home.
The seton, however, was continued, with an aloetic ball on every third
or fourth day.

Two or three days after this the eyes were perfectly cured and the seton
removed.

'Case' II.--The eye is much inflamed and the brow considerably
protruded.

This was supposed to be caused by a bite. I vainly endeavoured to bring
the lid over the swelling. I scarified the lid freely, and ordered the
bleeding to be encouraged by the constant application of warm water, and
physic-ball to be given.

On the following day the brow was found to be scarcely or at all
reduced, and the eye could not be closed. I drew out the haw with a
crooked needle, and cut it off closely with sharp scissors. The excised
portion was as large as a small-kidney-bean. The fomentation was
continued five days afterwards, and the patient then dismissed cured.

'Case' III.--A pointer was brought in a sad state of mange. Redness,
scurf, and eruptions were on almost every part. Apply the mange ointment
and the alterative and physic balls. On the following day there was an
ulcer on the centre of the cornea, with much appearance of pain and
impatience of light. Apply an infusion of digitalis, with the liquor
plumbi diacetatis. He was taken away on the twelfth day, the mange
apparently cured, and the inflammation of the eye considerably lessened.
A fortnight afterwards this also appeared to be cured.

'Case' IV.--A spaniel had been bitten by a large dog. There was no wound
of the lids, but the eye was protruded from the socket. I first tried
whether it could be reduced by gentle pressure, but I could not
accomplish it. I then introduced the blunt end of a curved needle
between the eye and the lid; and thus drawing up the lid with the right
hand, while I pressed gently on the eye with the left hand, I
accomplished my object. I then subtracted three ounces of blood and gave
a physic-ball. On the following day the eye was hot and red, with some
tumefaction. The pupil was moderately contracted, but was scarcely
affected by any change of light. The dog was sent home, with some
extract of goulard, and a fortnight afterwards was quite well.

'Case' V.--A dog received a violent blow on the right eye. Immediate
blindness occurred, or the dog could apparently just discern the
difference between light and darkness, but could not distinguish
particular objects. The pupil was expanded and immovable. A
pink-coloured hue could be perceived on looking earnestly into the eye.
A seton was introduced into the poll, kept there nearly a month, and
often stimulated rather sharply. General remedies of almost every kind
were tried: depletion was carried to its full extent, the electric fluid
was had recourse to; but at the expiration of nine weeks the case was
abandoned and the dog destroyed. Permission to examine him was refused.

I have, in two or three instances, witnessed decided cases of dropsy of
the eye, accumulation of fluid taking place in both the anterior and
posterior chambers of the eye; there was also effusion of blood in the
chambers, but in one case only was there the slightest benefit produced
by the treatment adopted, and in that there was gradual absorption of
the effused fluid.

About the same time there was another similar case. A pointer had
suddenly considerable opacity of one eye, without any known cause: the
other eye was not in the least degree affected. The dog had not been out
of the garden for more than a week. The eye was ordered to be fomented
with warm water.

On the following day the inflammation had increased, and the adipose
matter was protruded at both the inner and outer canthus. The eye was
bathed frequently with a goulard lotion. On the fourth day the eyeball
was still more inflamed, and the projections at both canthi were
increased. A curved needle was passed through both eyes, and there was
considerable bleeding. On the following day the inflammation began to
subside. At the expiration of a week scarcely any disease remained, and
the eye became as transparent as ever.

A curious ease of congenital blindness was brought to my infirmary. A
female pointer puppy, eight weeks old, had both her eyes of their
natural size and formation, but the inner edge of the iris was strangely
diseased. The pupil was curiously four-cornered, and very small. There
hung out of the pupil a grayish-white fibrous matter, which appeared to
be the remainder of the pupillary membrane.

Six months afterwards we examined her again, and found that the pupil
was considerably enlarged, and properly shaped, and the white skin had
vanished. In the back-ground of the eye there was a faint yellow-green
light, and the dog not only showed sensibility to light, but some
perception of external objects. At this period we lost sight of her.

A very considerable improvement has taken place with regard to the
treatment of the enlarged or protruded ball of the eye. A dog may get
into a skirmish, and have his eye forced from the socket. If there is
little or no bleeding, the case will probably be easily and successfully
treated.

The eye must, first, be thoroughly washed, and not a particle of grit
must be left. A little oil, a crooked needle, and a small piece of soft
rag should be procured. The blunt end of the needle should he dipped
into the oil, and run round the inside of the lid, first above and then
below. The operator will next--his fingers being oiled--press upon the
protruded eye gently, yet somewhat firmly, changing the pressure from
one part of the eye to the other, in order to force it back into the
socket.

If, after a couple of minutes' trial, he does not succeed, let him again
oil the eye on the inside and the out, and once more introduce the blunt
end of the needle, attempting to carry it upwards under the lid with two
or three fingers pressing on the eye, and the points of pressure being
frequently changed. In by far the greater number of cases, the eye will
be saved.

If it is impracticable to cause the eye to retract, a needle with a
thread attached must be passed through it, the eye being then drawn as
forward as possible and cut off close to the lids. The bleeding will
soon cease and the lids perfectly close.

'Ophthalmia' is a disease to which the dog is often liable. It is the
result of exposure either to heat or to cold, or violent exertion; it is
remedied by bleeding, purging, and the application of sedative medicine,
as the acetate of lead or the tincture of opium. When the eye is
considerably inflamed, in addition to the application of tepid or cold
water, either the inside of the lids or the white of the eye may be
lightly touched with the lancet. From exposure to cold, or accident or
violence, inflammation often spreads on the eye to a considerable
degree, the pupil is clouded, and small streaks of blood spread over the
opaque cornea. The mode of treatment just described must be pursued.

The crystalline lens occasionally becomes opaque. There is cataract. It
may be the result of external injury or of internal predisposition. Old
dogs are particularly subject to cataract. That which arises from
accident, or occasionally disease, may, although seldom, be reinstated,
especially in the young dog, and both eyes may become sound; but, in the
old, the slow-growing opacity will, almost to a certainty, terminate in
cataract.

There is occasionally an enlargement of the eye, or rather an
accumulation of fluid within the eye, to a very considerable extent. No
external application seems to have the slightest effect in reducing the
bulk of the eye. If it is punctured, much inflammation ensues, and the
eye gradually wastes away.

In 'amaurosis', the eye is beautifully clear, and, for a little while,
this clearness imposes upon the casual observer; but there is a peculiar
pellucid appearance about the eye--a preternatural and unchanging
brightness. In the horse, the sight occasionally returns, but I have
never seen this in the dog.

The occasional glittering of the eyes of the dog has been often
observed. The cat, the wolf, some carnivora, and also sheep, cows, and
horses, occasionally exhibit the same glittering. Pallas imagined that
the light of these animals emanated from the nervous membrane of the
eye, and considered it to be an electrical phenomenon. It is found,
however, in every animal that possesses a 'tapetum lucidum'. The
shining, however, never takes place in complete darkness. It is neither
produced voluntarily, nor in consequence of any moral emotion, but
solely from the reflection that falls on the eye.

[The eye and its diseases being so concisely treated by Mr. Youatt, we
are emboldened to add a more full and particular treatise on this
interesting subject, couched in language the most simple, and we trust
sufficiently plain to be understood by the most unscientific patron of
the canine race.

THE EYE AND ITS DISEASES.

THE NICTITATING MEMBRANE.

It is somewhat astonishing that an organ, so delicate and so much
exposed as the eye of the hunting dog necessarily is, should not more
frequently be attacked with disease, or suffer from the thorns,
poisonous briars, and bushes that so constantly oppose their progress
while in search of game. Nature, ever wise in her undertakings, while
endowing this organ with extreme sensibility, also furnished it with the
means of protecting itself in some measure against the many evils that
so constantly threaten its destruction.

The plica semilunaris, haw or nictitating membrane, though not as
largely developed in the dog as in some other animals, is, nevertheless,
of sufficient size to afford considerable protection to the ball of the
eye, and assists materially in preventing the accumulation of seeds and
other minute particles within the conjunctiva. This delicate membrane is
found at the inner canthus of the eye, and can be drawn at pleasure over
a portion of the globe, so as to free its surface from any foreign
substances that might be upon it. Although the eye of the dog is
attacked by many diseases, almost as numerous as those of the human
being, still they are much less frequent and far more tractable.

OPTHAMALIA--SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

In its mild form this disease is frequently met with, and easily yields
to the administration of the proper remedies, but when it appears as an
epidemic, in a kennel, it proves more stubborn. The discharge in
epidemic ophthalmia, when carried from one dog to the eyes of another,
no doubt is contagious, and, therefore, it is necessary to separate dogs
as much from each other as possible during any prevalent epidemic of
this nature.

The disease announces itself by slight redness of the conjunctiva,
tenderness to light, and increased flow of the secretions.

The eyeball appears retracted in its socket, and more moist and
transparent than usual. The infected vessels of the conjunctiva form a
species of net-work, and can be moved about with this membrane, showing
that the inflammation is entirely superficial, and not penetrating the
other coverings of the eye. Extravasation of blood within the
conjunctiva, (bloodshot,) is also not an uncommon appearance, but is
frequently the first symptom that draws our attention to the malady.

As the disease progresses, the conjunctiva becomes more vascular, the
photophobia intolerable, the cornea itself becomes opaque, and sometimes
exhibits a vascular appearance. There is considerable itching of the
ball, as evinced by the disposition of the dog to close the eye. If the
disease progresses in its course, unchecked by any remediate means, the
cornea may lose its vitality, ulceration commence, and the sight be for
ever destroyed by the bursting and discharge of the contents of the eye.

'Causes.'--Simple canine opthalmia proceeds from many causes, distinct
in their character, but all requiring pretty much the same treatment.
Bad feeding, bad lodging, want of exercise, extremes of heat, and cold,
are the most active agents in producing this affection.

'Treatment.'--The disease in its mild form is very tractable, and
requires but little attention; soothing applications, in connexion with
confinement to an obscure apartment and low diet, will generally correct
the affection in its forming stage.

In all inflammations of the eye, tepid applications we consider
preferable to cold, the latter producing a temporary reaction, but no
permanent good, while the former exerts a soothing and relaxing
influence over the tissues and parts to which they are applied.

Weak vinegar and water, with a small proportion of laudanum, we have
frequently seen used with advantage as a wash in this complaint.

When there is fever, it will be necessary to bleed, and purge.
Scarifying the conjunctiva with the point of a lancet, has been resorted
to by some veterinary surgeons with success.

CHRONIC OPHTHALMIA.

When the disease assumes this form, the discharge from the eyes is
lessened, and becomes more thick, the conjunctiva is not of such a
bright arterial red, but more of a brick-dust colour, and the inner side
of the lids when exposed will present small prominences and ulcerations.

'Treatment.'--More stimulating collyria will now be necessary, as
solutions of sulphate of zinc, copper, acetate of lead, &c. See No. 1,
2, 3, of the Collyria. The direct application of sulphate of copper, or
nitrate of silver, will often be of great benefit in changing the action
of the parts.

The lids should be turned down and brushed over two or three times with
the above articles in substance, and the dog restrained for a few
moments to prevent him from scratching during the temporary pain
inflicted upon him by the application.

Laudanum dropped in the eye will also prove very beneficial, allaying
the itching and pain, at the same time stimulating the organs to renewed
action. If the disease does not succumb under this treatment, a seton
placed in the pole will generally conquer it.

TRAUMATIC OPHTHALMIA

is produced by wounds of poisoned briars, stings of insects, bites of
other dogs, the scratching of cats, or the actual presence of foreign
bodies in the eye itself, which latter cause frequently occurs, and is
often overlooked by the sportsman.

'Treatment'.--This species of ophthalmia is best subdued by the
application of emollient poultices, depletion, purgation and cooling
washes. If a seed, small briar, or other substance has got in under the
lids, or inserted itself in the globe of the eye, the dog keeps the eye
closed, it waters freely, and in a short time becomes red and inflamed.
The removal of the article alone, will generally produce a cure;
sometimes it is necessary to use a cooling wash and administer a purge
or two. Great care should he had for the extraction of extraneous
substances from the eyes of dogs, as their presence often causes great
suffering to the animal even while diligently employed in the field. The
writer has seen dogs more than once rendered useless while hunting, by
grass, cloverseeds, or other small particles burying themselves under
the lids.

'Ophthalmia of Distemper'.--This species of inflammation will be spoken
of when treating of this latter affection.

SYMPATHETIC OPHTHALMIA

arises from the presence of some other disease located in another
portion of the body, as derangement of the stomach, mange, surfeit, &c.
The presence of one of these affections will indicate the cause of the
other.

'Treatment'.--Soothing applications to the organ itself, and remedies
for the removal of the primary affection.

HYDROPHTHALMIA

though not a common affection in the canine race, is occasionally met
with; several cases have come under the observation of the writer, and
no doubt there are but few dog-fanciers who have not seen the eyeballs
of some dog suffering with this malady, ready to start from their
sockets.

This affection depends upon a superabundance of the humours of the eye,
occasioned by over-secretion, or a want of power in the absorbent
vessels to carry off the natural secretions of the parts.

Old dogs are more apt to suffer from this disease than young dogs:
nevertheless, the latter are not by any means exempt; we once saw a pup,
a few days old, with the globe of the eye greatly extended by this
affection.

As the disease progresses, the eye becomes more hard and tender, the
sight is greatly impaired, and ultimately, if not arrested, the eye
bursts, discharges its contents, and total blindness ensues, greatly to
the relief of the poor animal.

'Treatment'.--This disease is very intractable, and is to be combated by
saline purges, bleeding, and stimulating application to the organ
itself. Mercurial ointment, rubbed over the eyebrow, will assist in
stimulating the absorbents.

When the disease has progressed for a long time, and the pain, as is
often the case, seems intense, it will save the animal great suffering,
by opening the ball and allowing the humours to escape. This may be done
by puncturing the cornea or the sclerotic coat with a needle. Setons
introduced along the spine would have a good effect.

CONGENITAL BLINDNESS

occasionally occurs throughout a whole litter, no doubt being entailed
upon the progeny of those dogs who have defective vision, or who are old
and infirm at the time of copulation. The best and only remedy is speedy
drowning.

CATARACT

consists in the partial or complete opacity of the crystalline lens; it
results from numerous causes, and is more frequent in the old than the
young subject. In old dogs both eyes are usually attacked, producing
absolute blindness, while in young animals one eye alone is generally
attacked.

'Causes.'--Old age, hard work, and bad feeding, are the agents most
active in the production of this affection; it generally comes on
slowly, but sometimes very quickly.

When the disease occurs in young dogs, it is generally the result of
wounds or blows over the head, convulsions and falls.

'Treatment.'--Little can be accomplished towards curing this disease
either in the old or young dog, as the disease, in spite of all our
efforts, will run its course, and terminate in total opacity of the
lens. Mild purging, blistering on the neck, introduction of the seton,
and blowing slightly stimulating powders into the eye, will sometimes
arrest the progress of the disease in the young dog.

ULCERATIONS ON THE CORNEA

are sometimes very troublesome, and if not put a stop to, will often
cause opacity and blindness, if not total destruction of the eye.

Slightly stimulating washes and purges are useful; the careful
application of nitrate of silver will often induce the ulcer to heal; it
must be put on very nicely and gently.

SPOTS ON THE CORNEA

are the result of ulcers and inflammation. If they do not materially
interfere with vision, they had better be left alone.

Powdered sugar and a small quantity of alum blown into the eye daily
through a quill, we have seen used with much success.

AMAUROSIS--GUTTA SERENA OR GLASS EYE,

A partial or complete paralysis of the optic nerves of either side is
not a frequent disease. It usually comes on gradually, but sometimes may
appear in the course of a few hours from the effects of wounds or
convulsions. When the paralysis is complete, total blindness of course
ensues. The intimate connection, or sympathy, existing between the
nerves of either eye, is so peculiar that disease of one is quickly
followed by a corresponding disease in the other.

Amaurosis, therefore, ordinarily ends in total blindness. The disease is
characterized by a dilated stage of the pupil, which seldom contracts
under the effect of any degree of light thrown upon it. The coats and
humours of the eye are perfectly transparent, in fact appear to be more
pellucid than natural.

'Causes.'--This affection is produced in many different ways; among the
most common causes may be mentioned wounds on the head, or of the parts
surrounding the nerve, strains, falls, disease of the bone, convulsions,
and epileptic fits.

We have seen a case produced by a tumour, which occupied the posterior
portion of the orbit, and caused the organ to be somewhat protruded from
its proper position, giving the eye the appearance of hydrophthalmia,
for which it was taken, the existence of the tumour never for a moment
being suspected. In this case there was partial amaurosis in both sides,
although nothing of disease could be discovered in the left eye.

Amaurosis is a very deceptive disease, the nerves alone being affected;
the humours and coverings of the eye remaining perfectly transparent and
natural, imposes upon the inexperienced observer, but is easily detected
by those who have witnessed the disease in others. There is a singular
watery appearance and vacant stare about the eye of the dog that cannot
be mistaken. This peculiarity is owing, no doubt, to the enlargement of
the pupil, as before observed.

'Treatment'.--When proceeding from blows, convulsions, or inflammation
of the nerve itself, bleeding will be serviceable, as also purging and
blistering. If the disease should appear without any symptom, or other
cause, to lead us to believe that there is any local affection, the
antiphlogistic course should be laid aside, and resort be had to local
and constitutional tonic applications, and revulsive frictions to the
nape of the neck and spine. A seton may also be applied; and electricity
has been recommended in such cases, no doubt arising from want of tone
in the general system.