G. A. Henty - "Through Three Campaigns"

Paul Heyse - "Die Einsamen"

Stephen Gwynn - "The Life of the Rt. Hon. Sir Charles W. Dilke, Vol. 2"

Philip Walsingham Sergeant - "Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of Winchester"

A Field Book of the Stars

W >> William Tyler Olcott >> A Field Book of the Stars




The Perseids are of a yellowish color, and move with medium velocity.
Their line of flight is from northeast to southwest. They are probably
visible for more than a month, from the latter half of July to the
last week in August.

The August meteors are known as the "Tears of St. Lawrence."

The Abbreviations under _Characteristics_ are as follows:

v.--very
Sl.--Slow
Sk.--Streak-leaving meteors.
M.--Moderately
B.--Bright
T.--Train-leaving meteors.
Sw.--Swift
F.--Faint
Sh.--Short meteors.




THE CONSTELLATIONS OF AUTUMN.

[Illustration: Map showing the principal stars visible from Lat. 40[deg]
N. at 9 o'clock, October first.]




CASSIOPEIA (kas-i-[=o]-p[=e]'-ya)--THE LADY IN THE CHAIR. (Face
North.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from [d] Ursae Majoris, through Polaris,
strikes [a] Cassiopeiae. It is situated the same distance from Polaris
as Ursa Major, and about midway between Polaris and the zenith in the
Milky Way. Cassiopeia is characterized by a zigzag row of stars which
form a rude "W," but in mid-autumn, to an observer facing north, the
"W" appears more like an "M," and is almost overhead. Note the spot
marked 1572. This is where a very famous temporary star appeared in
that year. It was bright enough at one time to be seen in full
sunshine. The star [[^e]] is sixteen light years distant.

Caph is equidistant from the Pole, and exactly opposite the star
Megres in Ursa Major; with [a] Andromedae and [g] Pegasi it marks the
equinoctial colure. These stars are known as "The Three Guides."

The chair can be readily traced out; [b], [a], and [g] mark three of
the four corners of the back, and [d] and [e], one of the front legs.
The word "Bagdei," made up of the letters for the principal stars,
assists the memory.

The stars [g] and [b] are pointer stars to a fifth-magnitude star the
lucida of the asterism Lacerta, the lizard about 15[deg] from [b].

Cassiopeia makes an excellent illuminated clock. When [b] is above
Polaris it is noon, when it is in the west at right angles to its
first position it is 6 P.M. At midnight it is on the northern horizon,
and at 6 P.M. it is due east.

This is sidereal time which agrees with mean time on March 22d, and
gains on the latter at the rate of two hours a month.

[Illustration: CASSIOPEIA]




CEPHEUS (s[=e]'-f[=u]s) (Face North.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from [a] to [b] Cassiopeiae and prolonged about
18[deg] strikes [a] Cephei. The nearest bright star west of Polaris is [g]
Cephei. Cepheus is an inconspicuous constellation, lying partly in the
Milky Way. A view of this constellation through an opera-glass will
repay the observer. Cepheus is characterized by a rude square, one
side of which is the base of an isosceles triangle. Look for the
so-called garnet star [m], probably the reddest star visible to the
naked eye in the United States. The star [z] has a blue companion
star.

[a] forms an equilateral triangle with Polaris and [e] Cassiopeiae.

It is claimed that Cepheus was known to the Chaldaeans twenty-three
centuries before our era.

Surrounding [d], [e], [z], and [l], which mark the king's head, is a
vacant space in the Milky Way, similar to the Coal Sack of Cygnus.

About 4[deg] from [g], in the direction of [k] is a pretty pair of
sixth-magnitude stars.

Owing to precession, [g], [b], and [a] Cephei will be successively the
Pole Star in 4500, 6000, and 7500 A.D. respectively.

[d] is a double whose components are yellow and blue. It is an
interesting variable changing from magnitude 3.7 to 4.9 at intervals
of 5 days 8 hours 47 minutes. As it is three times as bright at
maximum as at minimum and can be observed with the naked eye its
variations are well worth observing.

[Illustration: CEPHEUS]




PEGASUS (peg'-a-sus)--THE WINGED HORSE. (Face South.)


LOCATION.--One corner of the Great Square is found by drawing a line
from Polaris to Cassiopeia, and prolonging it an equal distance.

The Great Square is a stellar landmark. Three of the corners of the
square are marked by stars in Pegasus; the fourth, and northeastern,
corner is marked by the star Alpheratz in Andromeda. Each side of the
square is about 18[deg] long.

The horse is generally seen upside down, with his fore feet projected
up into the sky. Only the head, neck, and fore feet are represented.
The star Enif marks the nose.

[p] is an interesting double, easily seen in an opera-glass. All the
stars of the Square are approaching us at an inconceivable speed.

The position of the asterism Equus or Equ[=u]leus, the Little Horse,
or Horse's Head, is shown in the diagram.

Delphinus, the water jar of Aquarius, and the circlet in the Western
Fish, are all in the vicinity of Pegasus, and indicated in the
diagram.

The winged horse is found on coins of Corinth 500 to 430 B.C. The
Greeks called this constellation [Greek: hippos].

Pegasus seems to have been regarded in Phoenicia and Egypt as the sky
emblem of a ship.

Within the area of the Square Argelander counted thirty naked-eye
stars.

Note a fine pair in Equ[=u]leus just west of the star Enif in Pegasus.

The position of the equinoctial colure is defined by a line connecting
Polaris, [b] Cassiopeiae, [a] Andromedae, and [g] Pegasi.

[Illustration: PEGASUS]




ANDROMEDA (an-drom'-e-d[:a])--THE CHAINED LADY.


LOCATION.--The star [a] Alpheratz is at the northeastern corner of the
great square of Pegasus, one of the stellar landmarks.

Running east from [a], at almost equal distances, are four other
stars, two of which are of the second magnitude. The most easterly one
is [b] Persei, known as Algol, the famous variable. Lines connecting
the stars [g] Andromedae, Algol, and [a] Persei form a right-angled
triangle. The right angle is marked by Algol.

The chief object of interest in this constellation is the great
nebula, the first to be discovered. It can be seen by the naked eye
and it is a fine sight in an opera-glass. Its location is indicated in
the diagram.

The star [g] is the radiant point of the Bielid meteors, looked for in
November. It is a colored double visible in a 3" glass.

The great nebula has been called the "Queen of the Nebulae." It is said
to have been known as far back as A.D. 905, and it was described 986
A.D. as the "Little Cloud."

Andromeda is very favorable for observation in September, low in the
eastern sky.

Note the characteristic "Y" shaped asterism known as Gloria Frederika
or Frederik's Glory. It lies about at the apex of a nearly isosceles
triangle of which a line connecting Alpheratz and [b] Pegasi is the
base. A line drawn from [d] to [a] Cassiopeiae and prolonged a little
over twice its length points it out.

[Illustration: ANDROMEDA]




PERSEUS (per'-s[=u]s)--THE CHAMPION. (Face Northeast.)


LOCATION.--[a] Persei lies on a line drawn from [b] to [g] Andromedae,
and is about 9[deg] from the latter. The most striking feature in Perseus
is the so-called "segment of Perseus," a curve of stars beginning
about 12[deg] below Cassiopeia, and curving toward Ursa Major. Note the
famous variable Algol the Demon star. It represents the Medusa's head
which Perseus holds in his hand. It varies from the second to the
fourth magnitude in about three and one-half hours, and back again in
the same time, after which it remains steadily brilliant for two and
three-quarters days, when the same change recurs. Algenib and Algol
form with [g] Andromedae, a right-angled triangle.

Note a dull red star near Algol, and a pretty pair just above Algenib.

An opera-glass reveals much that is worthy of observation in this
region of the sky. It has been said of the clusters between Cassiopeia
and Perseus that they form the most striking sidereal spectacle in the
northern heavens. They are visible to the naked eye. Algenib never
sets in the latitude of New York, just touching the horizon at its
lower culmination. It is estimated that Algol is a little over a
million miles in diameter, [[^e]] has three faint stars on one side
nearly in a line, and one on the other--a miniature representation of
Jupiter and his satellites.

Algol, when on the meridian of New York City, is only one tenth of a
degree from the zenith point. This remarkable variable has a dark
companion star revolving near it obscuring its light in part from us
at stated intervals. By means of the spectroscope the speed diameter
and mass of this invisible star has been reckoned.

[Illustration: PERSEUS]




PISCES (pis'[=e]z)--THE FISHES. (Face Southeast.)


LOCATION.--This constellation is represented by two fishes each with a
ribbon tied to its tail. One, the Northern Fish, lies just below [b]
Andromedae,--the other, represented by the circlet, is just below
Pegasus. The ribbons, represented by streams of faint stars, from a
"V" with elongated sides, and terminate in the star Al Rischa, The
Knot.

Below [[^o]], and to the east of [l] the spot marked (*) is the place
which the sun occupies at the time of the equinox. It is one of the
two crossing places of the equinoctial, or equator, of the heavens,
and the ecliptic, or sun's path.

Below Pisces is Cetus, the Whale.

Pisces is thought to have taken its name from its coincidence with the
sun during the rainy season.

Three distinct conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn took place in this
constellation in the year 747 of Rome.

Pisces was considered the national constellation of the Jews, as well
as a tribal symbol.

In 1881, Jupiter, Saturn, and Venus were grouped together in Pisces.

The Circlet is a very striking group forming a pentagon. The glass
reveals two faint stars in addition, making the figure seven-sided or
elliptical in form.

As to the number of the stars as classified according to their
magnitude, that is their brightness, it may be mentioned that there
are approximately 20 stars of the first magnitude, 65 of the second,
300 of the third, and 450 of the fourth. We cannot see stars fainter
than the sixth magnitude with the naked eye.

[Illustration: PISCES]




TRIANGULUM (tr[=i]-an'-g[=u]-lum)--THE TRIANGLE. (Face East.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from the star [g] Pegasi to Algol in Perseus
passes through [b] Trianguli.

The triangle is clearly defined and a beautiful figure. It lies just
below Andromeda, and above Aries.

Triangulum is a very ancient constellation, being formerly named
Deltoton, from the Greek letter Delta [D].

It was in this locality that Piazzi discovered the asteroid Ceres,
January 1, 1800.

[a] Trianguli is sometimes called "Caput Trianguli."

[a] and [b] Trianguli were known as "The Scale Beam." According to
Argelander the constellation contains fifteen stars.

The Triangle has been likened to the Trinity, and the Mitre of St.
Peter.

[Illustration: TRIANGULUM]




AQUARIUS (a-kw[=a]'ri-us)--THE WATER CARRIER. (Face Southwest.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from [b] Pegasi to [a] of the same
constellation, and prolonged as far again, ends just east of the
so-called water jar of Aquarius, which is formed by a group of four
stars in the form of a "Y," as indicated in the diagram. The Arabians
called these four stars a tent.

The jar is represented as inverted, allowing a stream of water
represented by dim stars in pairs and groups of three stars, to
descend, ending in the bright star Fomalhaut, the mouth of the
Southern Fish.

A rough map of South America can be traced in the stars [th], [l],
[t], [d], 88, [i].

A rude dipper can be made out in the western part of the
constellation, formed of the stars [a], [b], [n], [e].

The stars [t] and [z] are doubles. Of the former pair, one is white,
the other orange in color. Fomalhaut was the object of sunrise worship
in the temple of Demeter at Eleusis in 500 B.C. The ancients called
this region of the sky "the Sea."

In the vicinity of [d], Mayer observed in 1756 what he termed a fixed
star. Herschel thought it a comet. It proved to be the planet Uranus.

[z] is almost exactly on the celestial equator.

[l] is a red star, the most prominent of the first stars in the
stream. The stars in Piscis Australis can be traced out with an
opera-glass.

Fomalhaut and Capella, in Auriga, rise almost exactly at the same
minute.

Fomalhaut is one of the four "royal stars" of astrology. The others
are Regulus, Antares, and Aldebaran.

[Illustration: AQUARIUS]




CAPRICORNUS (kap-ri-k[^o]r'-nus)--THE SEA GOAT. (Face Southwest.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from [a] Pegasi through [z] and [th] in the
same constellation, and projected about 25[deg], strikes [a] and [b] in
Capricornus.

This constellation contains three principal stars--[a] and [b]
mentioned above, and [d] about 20[deg] east of them.

The water jar of Aquarius is about the same distance northeast of [d]
Capricorni that Fomalhaut, in the Southern Fish, is southeast of it.

[a] has a companion which can be seen by the naked eye. It is a fine
sight in an opera-glass. These two stars are gradually separating.

[b] is a double star, one being blue, the other yellow.

The constellation resembles a chapeau, or peaked hat, upside down.

The stars in the head of the Sea Goat, [a] and [b] are only 2[deg] apart,
and can hardly be mistaken by an observer facing the southwestern sky
during the early evening in autumn.

Five degrees east of [d] is the point announced by Le Verrier as the
position of his predicted new planet, Neptune.

Flammarion claims that the Chinese astronomers noted the five planets
in conjunction in Capricornus, in the year 2449 B.C.

The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient Orientalists "The
Southern Gate of the Sun."

[Illustration: CAPRICORNUS]




ARIES ([=a]'-ri-[=e]z)--THE RAM. (Face Southeast.)


LOCATION.--The star [a] in Aries, known as Hamal, and sometimes as
Arietis, a star of the second magnitude, is about 7[deg] south of [a]
Trianguli. A line drawn from the Pole Star to [g] Andromedae, and
prolonged about 20[deg], ends at Hamal.

Aries contains three principal stars, forming a characteristic
obtuse-angled triangle.

The star [g] Arietis was one of the first double stars discovered. A
telescope is required to split it. Hamal lies near the path of the
moon, and is one of the stars from which longitude is reckoned.

Below Aries may be seen the characteristic pentagon in the head of
Cetus, the Whale.

More than two thousand years ago Aries was the leading constellation
of the zodiac, and now stands first in the list of zodiacal signs.

The Arabians knew this constellation as Al Hamal, the sheep.

[b] and [g] are one instance out of many where stars of more than
ordinary brightness are seen together in pairs, the brightest star
being generally on the east.

[Illustration: ARIES]




CETUS (s[=e]'-tus)--THE WHALE. (Face Southeast.)


LOCATION.--A line drawn from Polaris, to [d] Cassiopeiae, and prolonged
two and one third times its original length, reaches the centre of
this constellation.

It lies just below Aries and the Triangle, and resembles the figure of
the prehistoric icthyosaurus, while some see in the outline an easy
chair. The head of the beast is characterized by a clearly traced
pentagon, about 20[deg] southeast of Aries. The brightest star in the
constellation is [a] of the second magnitude. It is at one apex of the
pentagon, about 15[deg] east of Al Rischa in Pisces, and 37[deg] directly
south of Algol.

The noted variable Mira also known as [o] Ceti is the chief object of
interest in this constellation.

It was discovered by Fabricius in 1596 and varies from the ninth
magnitude to the third or fourth in a period of 334 days. It can be
observed during its entire range with a 3" glass.

In 1779 Mira is reported to have been as bright as the first-magnitude
star Aldebaran. It lies almost exactly on a line joining [g] and [z]
Ceti a little nearer the former. Ten degrees south of it are four
faint stars about 3[deg] apart forming a square.

[t] Ceti is one of our nearest neighbors at a distance of nine light
years.

[z] is a naked-eye double star.

[Illustration: CETUS]




MUSCA (mus'-k[:a])--THE FLY. (Face Southeast.)


LOCATION.--Musca lies between Triangulum and Aries, the diagram
clearly defining its position.

The four stars composing it form a group shaped like the letter "Y."

There is nothing of particular interest to be noted in this asterism.
It does not appear on modern star charts and is considered obsolete.

So great is the distance that separates us from the stars that as for
the great majority had they been blotted out of existence before the
Christian era, we of to-day should still receive their light and seem
to see them just as we do. When we scan the nocturnal skies we study
ancient history. We do not see the stars as they are but as they were
centuries on centuries ago.

[Illustration: MUSCA]




METEORIC SHOWERS.

OCTOBER TO JANUARY.


+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| | | | | Other Dates | |
| Name of Shower | Date | Radiant Point |Characteristics| of |Location|
| | | | | Observation | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| | | Between Great | | | |
| Ursids |Oct. 4 | Bear's head and | Sw. Sk. | Aug. 20-24 | N. |
| | | Polaris | | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
|Epsilon Arietids | | East of Hamal, | | Oct. 11-24, | |
| Rich shower |Oct. 14| near Musca | M. Sw. | Oct. 30- | E. |
| 1877 | | | | Nov. 4 | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Orionids |Oct. 18| Near Alhena in | After 11 P.M. | Oct. 16-22 | E. |
| Fine shower | | Gemini | Sw. Sk. | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| | | Near Castor and | After 10 P.M. | Nov. 7, | |
| Delta Geminids |Oct. 29| Pollux | v. Sw. Sk. | Dec. 4, | N.E. |
| | | | | Oct. 16-22 | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
|(e) Taurids. Rich|Nov. 2 | About 13[deg] | Sl. B.T. | Nov. 2-3 | E. |
| shower in 1886 | |S.E. of Aldebaran| | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Leonids | |Near ([g]) Leonis|After midnight.| | |
|Brilliant shower |Nov. 13| In the Sickle | v. Sw. | Nov. 12-14 | N.E. |
| | | | Sk. | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| | |Near ([m]) Ursae | After 10 P.M. | Sept. 15, | |
| Leo Minorids |Nov. 16| Maj., the Great | v. Sw. Sk. | Oct. 16 | N. |
| | |Bear's hind feet | | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Andromedids. | | Near ([g]) | | Nov. 17-23 | |
| The Bielids. |Nov. 27| Andromedae | Sl. T. | Nov. 21-28 |Overhead|
| Fine display | | | | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| |Nov. 30|Between Capella | | Aug. 16 | |
| Taurids | |and ([a]) Persei | V. Sw. | Sept. 15, |Overhead|
| | | | | Nov. 20 | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Zeta Taurids. |Dec. 6 | Near the horns | | | |
| Active shower | | of the Bull | Sl. B. | | E. |
| in 1876 | | | | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Geminids. |Dec. 10| Near Castor | Sw. | Dec. 1-14 | E. |
| Fine shower | | | | | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Kappa Draconids |Dec. 22| Near Thuban | Sw. Sk. | Nov. 14-23 | |
| | | ([a]) Draconis | | Dec. 18-29 | |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+
| Fire Ball Dates | | | | Nov. 29 | |
| | | | |Dec. 2, 19, 21| |
+-----------------+-------+-----------------+---------------+--------------+--------+

The Andromedes are usually red, sluggish in their movements, and leave
only a small train.

Brilliant displays were seen in 1872 and 1885.

The Leonids are characterized by their exceedingly swift flight. They
are of a greenish or bluish tint and leave behind them a vivid and
persistent train. In most years the display is not especially
noteworthy. Once in thirty-three years they afford an exhibition grand
beyond description as in 1833 and 1866.




THE CONSTELLATIONS OF WINTER.

[Illustration: Map showing the principal stars visible from Lat. 40[deg]
N. at 9 o'clock, January first.]




TAURUS (t[^a]'-rus)--THE BULL. (Face Southwest.)


LOCATION.--Taurus contains the well-known and unmistakable group the
Pleiades, on the right shoulder of the Bull. A "V" shaped group known
as the Hyades is just to the southeast of the Pleiades, in the face of
the Bull, forming one of the most beautiful objects in the sky.

The brightest star in Taurus is Aldebaran, a ruddy-hued star known as
"The Follower." It is at the beginning of the "V" in the Hyades, and
is at the apex of a triangle formed by Capella, in Auriga, and [a]
Persei, and equally distant from them both.

The star [b] called Nath, is peculiarly white, and is common to Taurus
and Auriga. It represents the tip of one of the Bull's horns, and the
right foot of the Charioteer. The Pleiades are mentioned in Chinese
annals in 2357 B.C. On a photograph of the group over 2000 stars have
been counted.

The ecliptic passes a little south of a point midway between the two
horns, where a scattered and broken stream of minute stars can be
seen.

Note two pretty pairs in the Hyades, one south of Aldebaran, the other
northwest of it.

There are rich clusters below the tip of the horn over Orion's head.

Taurus was an important object of worship by the Druids.

Aldebaran is near one eye of the Bull, and used to be called "The
Bull's Eye." An occultation of it by the moon, which not infrequently
occurs, is a striking phenomenon.

The Eskimos regard the Pleiades as a team of dogs in pursuit of a
bear. The group is receding from us at the rate of thirteen miles a
second and has a common eastward motion of about ten seconds a
century.

[Illustration: TAURUS]




ORION ([)o]-r[=i]'-on)--THE GIANT HUNTER. (Face South.)


LOCATION.--Orion is considered the finest constellation in the
heavens. A line drawn from Nath to [z] Tauri (the tips of the Bull's
horns), and extended 15[deg], strikes the brilliant Betelgeuze in Orion,
known as the martial star. It forms the northeast corner of a
conspicuous parallelogram. The splendid first-magnitude star Rigel is
diagonally opposite Betelgeuze, and the girdle and sword of the Hunter
lie within the parallelogram, a very striking group. The former is
represented by three bright stars in a line 3[deg] long known as the
"Three Stars," because there are no other stars in the heavens that
exactly resemble them in position and brightness.

In the sword there is the most remarkable nebula in the heavens. It
may be seen with an opera-glass and in a telescope it is a wonderful
sight. Bellatrix is called the Amazon star. Note the contrasting
colours of [a] and [b].

About 9[deg] west of Bellatrix are eight stars in a curved line running
north and south. These point out the Lion's skin held in the Hunter's
left hand.

Below [l] there are two stars forming a triangle with it. Flammarion
calls this region the California of the sky.

The celestial equator passes nearly through [d].

Orion was worshipped in China during the one thousand years before our
era, and was known to the Chinese as the "White Tiger."

The Eskimos see in the Belt stars the three steps cut by some
celestial Eskimo in a steep snow bank to enable him to reach the top.

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