Charles Kingsley - "Out of the Deep"

Louisa de la Rame) - "A Dog of Flanders"

William McPherson - "An Elementary Study of Chemistry"

Mrs. Humphry Ward - "The Coryston Family"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child




Another form of eczema is simply a very badly chafed condition
accompanied by intense itching, and commonly known as "dry eczema." A
very disagreeable form is the pustular variety. One poor little
sufferer that was once brought to us had so many pustules on his head
that one could not put a ten cent piece on his scalp without touching
a pustule. The treatment of these cases, in order to be effective and
leave the child's head in normal condition, must be administered with
the utmost patience every day for weeks. A doctor's help is always
required in combating this sort of skin trouble. If the cause is
external, then the clothes should be changed. All irritation should be
removed--the clothing must not be allowed to scratch the skin. The
child must not scratch himself. If necessary, little splints may be
placed on the inside of his arms to prevent his bending the elbows if
the eczema is on the face, while the little sleeves may be pinned to
the side of the dress to resist the movement of the arms.


ECZEMA TREATMENT

The diet should be most carefully looked into. The nursing mother will
earnestly look into every article of food she herself is eating, and
carefully avoid all foods that produce fermentation or decomposition.
The mother's urine should be examined and its acidity noted; if it is
above normal she should take some alkalines such as ordinary baking
soda or calcined magnesia. If it is a bottle-fed baby, any form of
flour should be removed from the food and the quantity of the milk
reduced. All this, of course, is done under the direction of the
physician. Repeated doses of castor oil may be given.

The name of the medicinal agents that have been used in the treatment
of eczema, is legion. Perhaps one of the most widely used is the early
varnishing of the affected skin with ichthyol (one part ichthyol, one
part distilled water), which is swabbed on after the skin has been
cleansed with olive oil. Allow this to almost dry, and then sprinkle
on talcum powder which smooths over the dry varnish of ichthyol. This
is worn every night and during the day, in bad cases, even when the
eczema is on the face. It is renewed each day, and is preceded by the
olive-oil bath. No water or soap is ever used in eczema. Fortunately,
the Eskimo has taught us that the skin really can be cleansed with oil
as well as with water. In the appendix will be found two
prescriptions, number one and number two, that have proved very
beneficial in some of the most severe forms of eczema.


HIVES AND FRECKLES

Hives, a crop of little raised red papules closely resembling lesions
caused by the sting of a mosquito, may make their appearance upon the
skin of the child, remain a few hours, and then disappear. Hives are
usually due to digestive disturbances and may be caused by such foods
as strawberries, nuts, pastries, pineapple, certain sea foods,
mushrooms, etc. A good cathartic, the taking of alkalines, such as
baking soda or calcined magnesia, with a bran or starch bath, or
possibly a soda bath, will usually correct the difficulty. The same
treatment may be used in nettle rash or prickly heat.

Freckles seem to run in families. Broad-brimmed hats or sunbonnets may
be worn, but under no circumstance should a little girl be bidden to
remain in the house and shun the beautiful, sunshiny outdoors just
because she freckles easily. Do not apply any lotions to the freckled
face without medical advice, for great harm may be done the tender
skin of the child.


RINGWORM

Often upon the scalps of young children may be seen circles--rather,
patches--which are slightly rough to the touch, and which cause the
hair to fall out and the spots to remain bald. They are known as
ringworms of the scalp. The affection may likewise appear on the body
or the face, presenting a ring of reddened skin with a scaly border.
Ringworm on the scalp is hard to treat and medical help should be
secured, for, in spite of all that can be done, the disease often runs
its course, leaving round bald spots over the head. Ringworm of the
face, taken early, is helped by carefully painting with tincture of
iodine. The mother should constantly bear in mind that ringworm is a
"catching" disease, so that all handkerchiefs, towels, and clothes are
to be kept separate. The disease known as mange which so often attacks
dogs, is nothing more than ringworm, and children often contract the
disease from dogs. Ringworm, whether it be on children or dogs, may be
greatly helped by the use of tincture of iodine and other appropriate
remedies.


BOILS

The much poulticing of boils has done an untold amount of mischief.
Many children and adults are in their graves today because of improper
treatment of boils. Blood poisoning which so often follows the
careless poulticing, as well as the uncleanly opening of boils, can
all be avoided. Before touching a boil, the surrounding skin should be
thoroughly washed with sterile cotton and laundry soap and then
disinfected with alcohol. Then, with a scalpel or a surgeon's knife
which has been either boiled for twenty minutes or allowed to remain
in pure carbolic acid two minutes and then in alcohol two minutes, it
should be thoroughly opened down to the core so that the pus may come
out. It is very much better for the trained hands of a physician to do
this than for any member of the family to undertake such an
operation--where the danger of blood poisoning is always present. The
only treatment of skin eruptions containing pus which is justifiable
for the home folks to undertake is to simply paint them with iodine.
Under no circumstance should poultices be used.


FEVER BLISTERS

It is not at all uncommon for small children to develop a group of
fever blisters on the lips when suffering with any disease, or
experiencing a high fever. Even a simple cold or a spell of
indigestion may be accompanied by fever blisters. They appear not only
on the lips but also on the edges of the nose and may even be seen on
the chin.

Early in their first appearance they may be treated with spirits of
camphor or plain alcohol, which sometimes tends to abort them; but
they usually run their course, and when they are fully developed they
may be treated with zinc oxide, simple borated vaseline, or ichthyol.


WARTS

Very often children's hands are disfigured by warts. They appear
suddenly, develop rapidly, and many times disappear just about as
suddenly as they appeared. Every child suffering from warts usually
passes through the stage of charms and lingoes which are popularly
used to remove these disagreeable growths. We hardly see any efficacy
in "bean-ie, bean-ie take this wart away," or any particular virtue in
stealing mother's dishcloth, cutting it up into as many pieces as
there are warts on the hand and rubbing each wart with a separate
piece of the cloth; but you will find people in every town or village
who will assure you that their warts were driven away by one of these
charms or lingoes. Warts are either better left alone or removed by a
physician with the high-frequency spark or some other reliable method.


BIRTHMARKS

A red or purplish patch on the skin is the result, as mentioned in an
earlier chapter, of an embryological accident in which one or more
embryonic cells slipped out of place in the early days of skin
formation. These accidental markings may occur on the face, the
scalp, or on any other portion of the body, and they should be let
alone, unless they show a tendency to grow, when it may prove best to
give them proper surgical attention.

A mole is also a birthmark, and if found upon the neck or shoulders
where it is likely to disfigure, it may be removed by the
high-frequency spark, or by surgery, in the same way as warts. Never
tamper with moles. Leave them alone or turn them over to the surgeon.


ERYSIPELAS

Erysipelas is a much-dreaded disease which is the result of infection
with the blood-poisoning germ--streptococcus. It usually occurs about
a wound, and is due to infection by this microbe. If it follows
circumcision, it is due, of course, to infection, and may be very
serious, even causing death. It attacks persons of any age and is
oftenest seen on the face. In appearance, the skin is a bright and
shiny red, with a definite line of demarcation slightly raised at the
edges because of the swollen tissues underneath. On pressure, the
redness disappears but reappears immediately upon relieving the
pressure. The inflammation, pain, and fever often continues a number
of days, during which the child should be isolated from all other
members of the family. The bowels should be freely opened, and the
diet should be liquid and soft; while local treatment is cared for by
the physician who should always be called. Should erysipelas develop
on a very young baby it is very important that he should be removed at
once from the mother. As stated before, the disease is produced by the
blood-poisoning germ which is very much to be avoided in any and all
stages of obstetrics. One attack in no way renders the patients
immune. They may have repeated attacks of erysipelas. The treatments
should be started early and kept up most rigidly.


SCABIES AND LICE

In thickly settled districts among the poor and uneducated, where
filth and untidiness reign, the "itch" is a very prominent disease. It
is caused by the itch mite, a parasite which burrows underneath the
skin leaving behind its eggs in little irregularly shaped, bluish
tinted ridges. Such a profound itching is set up by this burrowing and
depositing of eggs that the child cannot resist scratching, and all
taken together produces the typical itch-rash. The common site for
this rash is on the sides and between the fingers and toes; on arm
pits and buttocks of the child, as well as at the waistline. The
treatment is usually beyond home remedies. A physician should have
charge of the case who will conduct a line of treatment which, if
diligently followed, will rid the body of this scourge within a week
or ten days.

Along with the itch are often found parasites of the head, or lice
(pediculi). It is not at all infrequent to find them in the heads of
uncared for children; but if a much-cared-for child is brought in
contact with an infected head he will probably "catch" the infection.
A most intense and disagreeable itching is set up at once. The
treatment consists in getting the head clean by the use of a very fine
comb, thus endeavoring to remove the adult parasites as well as the
eggs or "nits." However, great care should be taken to avoid injuring
the scalp. Perhaps the simplest and most effective treatment known is
the kerosene bath which should be applied at night, the hair being
done up in a bandage until morning, when the kerosene is washed off
with soap and water and then the hair given a vigorous vinegar shampoo
in order to destroy the "nits." Tincture of larkspur, or an ointment
made from the seeds, may also be used. It is applied several days in
succession and then washed out.




CHAPTER XXXIII

DEFORMITIES AND CHRONIC DISORDERS


Reference has already been made to certain accidents of embryology
during the very early days or weeks of the formative period of the
embryo. Common illustrations of such deforming developmental accidents
are harelip, cleft palate, and club foot.


HARELIP AND CLEFT PALATE

In the case of a partial or complete failure of the two sides of the
face to come together in the median line, a deformity results which is
known as harelip--a partial or complete cleft of the upper lip. It may
be a single or a double cleft, exposing the teeth, or the cleft may
even extend up into the nose. This deformity may seriously interfere
with nursing, making it necessary to resort to feeding with a medicine
dropper and later a spoon. The success of the operation for the relief
of harelip, which should usually be performed during the early months
of life, is often very remarkable.

Should this failure to unite be in the deeper structures of the head,
then cleft palate is the result. This, too, may be partial or
complete: partial as seen in a cleft of the soft palate only; and
complete, when the hard palate also is involved. In such an instance
it is the floor of the nose that is defective; hence the nose and
mouth are one cavity.

A specially devised apparatus which assists the child in nursing may
be found on the market, for nursing is well-nigh impossible without
the closure of the roof of the mouth. The operation for cleft palate
is usually successful when performed at the proper time and by
competent hands.

In tongue-tie the weblike membrane underneath is attached too far
forward, so that the child is quite unable to protrude his tongue, and
this condition greatly interferes with sucking. The operation for the
relief of this condition is slight, and should be performed as soon as
the defect is discovered.


DEFORMED HANDS AND FEET

Occasionally there is a webbing of one or more fingers of the hand,
and there are sometimes seen too many fingers or a double thumb. It is
needless to allow such a deformity to continue; the operation for
relief is often remarkably successful and should be performed very
early.

Clubfoot results when short tendons or contracted tendons pull the
toes inward or outward with raising of the heel. Treatment must be
instituted early; braces or splints are applied; and untiring efforts
are put forth in massage and other lines to prevent a lifelong
handicap of clubfoot.

An inward rotating of the legs presents the deformity of pigeon-toe.
The normal foot naturally inclines toward "pointing in," and such a
condition should not be discouraged. Many flat feet (broken arch) are
due to shoe lasts which compel the toes to slant "out," and the
bunions which so often follow such mistreatment may be exceedingly
painful.

By all means place shoes on the pigeon-toed child that possess
straight lasts with flexible arches, and which admit of the exercise
of many muscles of the foot which otherwise remain inactive.

As the child grows older the toenails thicken, and often in their
trimming they are cut so closely at the corners that sometimes a
condition results known as ingrowing nails. Such are very painful and
must receive special attention. First of all, the nail is cut
squarely, and after scraping it thin the corner is lifted and cotton
so placed under it that the nail's downward and inward growth is
stopped.


SPINAL CURVATURE

Curvature of the spine is more common than is usually thought. The
most frequent variety of it is the lateral curvature. One shoulder is
lower than the other, and the hips are therefore uneven. Rickets,
during infancy, is the most common cause of spinal curvature.

Improper sitting at school--sitting on the edge of the seat--or
carrying heavy loads are often contributing factors to the production
of lateral curvatures. Only the muscles and ligaments enter into this
deformity, hence the treatment should be started early and should
consist of:

1. Stretching exercises.

2. Hanging from the rounds of a ladder securely fastened to the wall.

3. Certain applications of hot fomentations to the spinal muscles for
their relaxation.

4. Firm cushion placed under one or other of the hips to encourage the
re-establishment of muscular poise.

5. Special supervision of the case.


POTT'S DISEASE

Pott's disease, or tuberculosis of the bone, often results in an
angular spinal deformity. This curvature, unlike the lateral
curvature, is a sequela of an actual disease of the bones. It is
always very serious and demands early treatment from skilled hands.
Early in the disease there is a peculiar stiff, tottering gait. The
little child holds the spine rigidly, and in picking up objects from
the floor bends the knees instead of the spine. If the trouble is in
the upper spine, the shoulders are held high and the head is stiffly
poised, it is never rotated; in looking about the entire body turns.

Medical aid should be secured early. The X ray not only locates the
difficulty but also determines the extent of the process. If the spine
be put to perfect rest, outdoor life begun, a diet rich in fats
established, the results are often wonderfully successful.

Another tubercular condition is seen in the much dreaded hip-joint
disease which parents should always be on the lookout for. The
earliest symptoms are crying out in the night suddenly, unnatural
standing on one leg (to relieve the strain on the diseased hip) and
so-called "growing pains." Call in a physician very early and
institute proper treatment. A posterior curvature of the spine is
often associated with a bad case of rickets. It is of temporary
duration, and usually clears up when the symptoms of rickets have been
eradicated. It involves only the back muscles--not the vertebral
bones.

The young mother is often very much concerned over the misshapen head
of the child as a result of a prolonged labor; and it does seem quite
miraculous to see a head, more nearly resembling an egg than anything
else, become beautifully round and shapely by the end of two or three
days.

Protruding ears may be encouraged to lie more flatly by the wearing of
a specialized bonnet at night. When the babies are too young to turn
themselves they should be turned first to one side and then the other,
while care should always be exercised in properly straightening out a
curled under ear or an overlapping ear.


RHEUMATISM

While we so often regard rheumatism an adult disease, nevertheless,
children do suffer its aches and pains as well as the fever which so
often attends the inflammatory type. The so-called "growing pains" are
often of rheumatic origin.

Diseased tonsils not only are often--very often--the avenue of entry
of infectious microorganisms that cause one type of rheumatism, but
many forms of valvular heart disease are also directly traceable to
these same diseased tonsils. The treatment consists in giving proper
attention to the tonsils, even removal if necessary--and if the child
is old enough. All other possible causes should be located and
removed; the child should have absolute rest in bed with brisk
cathartics and a liquid diet (no meat broths). The diet should consist
more of alkalinizing foods as shown in the special table in the
appendix. Medicinal alkalines are often given when the urine shows a
very high acid reaction.


SCURVY

Scurvy, seen in children who subsist on "prepared foods," is
manifested by tender legs and swollen gums which have a tendency to
bleed easily. Pallor, loss of appetite, and insomnia accompany the
condition. The treatment of scurvy is change of diet from "patent
foods" to fresh cow's milk, with the addition of orange juice, daily.
In older children the food must be very nutritious; out of door life,
salt glows, friction baths (see appendix), and the taking of large
amounts of fats are all essential to the cure.


ADENITIS--ENLARGED GLANDS

Enlarged glands, or what our grandmothers used to call "kernels" in
the throat are often the result of inflammation in the mouth or
throat, and occur in connection with many of the childhood diseases,
notably diphtheria, scarlet fever, and scarlatina.

Glands appearing in the back of the neck may be occasioned by
pediculli (lice), ring worm, or eczema, while those seen in the neck
just back and below the ears may come from mastoiditis (inflammation
of the middle ear) or adenoids.

Glands felt under the arm enlarge because of trouble or infection in
the breast, hand, or arm; while glands in the groin are usually due to
some infection of the feet, legs, or abdomen.

These glands usually disappear when the general health and well-being
of the child is improved by:

1. Outdoor life.
2. Morning dry-friction rub to the skin.
3. Good liberal diet, including plenty of fats.
4. No feeding between meals.
5. The salt glow and general tonic treatment (see appendix).
6. The oil rub at night.


RICKETS

Rickets (a disease of the bones) often follows in the wake of faulty
feeding and unhygienic surroundings. The bones lack a proper amount of
lime salts and other elements. Development in general, especially that
of the bones, is greatly interfered with.

Bowlegs, prominent square brow, enlarged perspiring head, weakness,
and often tenderness of the flesh, are notable signs of the disease.
The treatment varies little from that of scurvy, and will be provided
in detail by the attending physician.


MALARIA

Children often suffer from malarial parasites. Sudden rise of fever on
regular days (sometimes daily, every two days or every three days)
should demand a careful medical examination including the examination
of the blood where the offending organism is seen in the red blood
cells. We recently saw a little girl who happened to have an earache
and was about to be operated on for ear trouble, when examination of
the blood revealed the fact that she was suffering from malaria.


TUBERCULOSIS

In the routine examination of adult patients, the X ray observations
of the lungs often reveal deposits of lime salts which tell the story
of a successful fight against tuberculosis (Fig. 16). And while it may
seem surprising, we believe beyond a doubt that most of us have had
some varying degree of tuberculosis while young--the unrecognized
battle has been fought--and these small monuments of lime salts alone
remain to tell the interesting story.

The pity of it is that whole armies of little folks fall in this
struggle against disease, for it is one of the common and fatal
diseases of childhood. Fresh-air schools, playgrounds, and free school
lunches are saving hundreds of children from the ravages of this
disease each year.

Tuberculosis is strictly a house disease, hence the little tubercular
patient must seek outdoor life. All avoidable exposure to the disease
must be denounced, and public sentiment must continue to be aroused to
the hygienic betterment of the tenement districts and basement homes.
The sanitary drinking cup and the bubble fountain must be encouraged,
as must also the proper ventilation of all places where crowds
assemble, be it the schoolroom, the theater, or the church.


SYPHILIS

While tuberculosis is known as the "great white plague," syphilis and
gonorrhea constitute the "great black plague," which seen in the
little folks is pitiable indeed, leading us to realize that surely
"the children's teeth have been set on edge" because of the careless
eating of sour grapes by the parents. Syphilitic parents who have not
been properly treated, should think many times before they take upon
themselves the awful responsibility of bringing into the world a
tainted child. Proper mercurial treatment should be instituted at once
not only for the child but also in the case of both parents.

[Illustration: Fig. 16. X ray Showing Tuberculosis of the Lung]




CHAPTER XXXIV

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES


In this chapter we wish to instruct the mother or the caretaker in
doing the one thing needful for every one of the more common household
accidents and emergencies while waiting for the doctor.

In every household there should be found an accident and emergency
"kit" of necessary paraphernalia for the quick application of the one
necessary medicine, dressing, etc. This "kit" should contain baking
soda for burns, bandages and sterile gauze for cuts or tears, together
with adhesive plaster, needle and thread, etc.


INSECT BITES AND STINGS

Far greater harm is often done the skin by the subsequent scratching
of the insect bite with dirty finger nails than by the bite itself;
and so it is very important that we remember to allay quickly the
intense itching by the application of ammonia water or camphor. Almost
instantly the itching is stopped, and the added "scratching"
irritation to the already injured skin is thus avoided.

By the aid of a magnifying glass, and often by the naked eye, we may
detect the stinger which has been left behind by the greedy guest, and
which should be removed by a pair of tweezers. Ice-water compresses
will stop the swelling and even an old-fashioned mud dressing, which
was used and appreciated by our great grandmothers, is a thing not to
be despised.

If the much admired shrubbery be removed one hundred feet away from
the porch, mosquitoes would trouble the household less. It has been
demonstrated in many localities that clearing away the near-by clumps
of shrubbery permits the family to sit on unscreened porches
unharmed. Mosquitoes multiply rapidly in stagnant pools of water, but
if oil is poured over these stagnant waters the increase of mosquitoes
is abated, and their total extinction is not unheard of in swampy
districts receiving such care.

Whenever baby is out of doors where mosquitoes, flies, or other
insects are to be found, he should be properly protected from such
pests by mosquito netting stretched over a frame eighteen inches above
his face, for we can think of nothing more uncomfortable than a
mosquito netting dragging over a sweaty baby's face. The fact that
mosquitoes, flies, roaches, and other insects are carriers of
tuberculosis, infantile paralysis, typhoid fever, cholera, yellow
fever and malaria, as well as a host of minor ailments, should make us
the more anxious for either their extermination or the protection of
our children from their greedy bites and stings.

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