William Stearns Davis - "A Day In Old Athens"

Emile Zola - "Germinal"

Tacitus - "The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus"

Bartolome de las Casas - "A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child





VACCINATION

The history of the change brought about in the Philippines since
vaccination has been introduced is an argument of itself which ought
to convince the most skeptical of the value of vaccination. By all
means, every child in a fair degree of health should be vaccinated. It
is wise to vaccinate babies before the teething period--from the third
to the sixth month. Babies with any skin trouble or suffering from
malnutrition, but not living in a smallpox district, should be
vaccinated during the second year. In young babies, under six months,
the leg is the proper place to receive the vaccination.

If proper surgical cleanliness is practiced and ample protection is
afforded in after dressing, vaccination need not be a taxing process.
The child suffers from general lassitude--a little drowsiness with
loss of appetite and a small amount of fever--but this passes off in a
reasonable length of time, especially if he is not overfed and his
bowels are looked after. On the second or third day after vaccination
a red papule appears which soon grows larger, and, after five or six
days, it becomes filled with a watery fluid. By the tenth day it has
the appearance of a pustule about the size of a ten-cent piece,
surrounded by a red areola about three inches in diameter. At the end
of two weeks the pustule has dried down to a good crust or scab, in
another week it falls off, leaving a pitted white scar.

If the vaccination does not take, it should be repeated after an
interval of two months.


DIPHTHERIA

Diphtheria is a disease much dreaded during childhood and adolescence.
It may attack any age--even little babies are susceptible. It begins
with a general feeling of heavy, drowsy lassitude with a sore throat.
White spots appear on the tonsils which may resemble a simple
follicular tonsillitis, while in a short time white patches spread
over the throat and tonsils.

It is not at all uncommon for this membrane to attack the nose,
producing a bloody, pustular discharge; and when it does attack the
nose, it is none the less contagious and must be regarded just as
seriously. A physician is called at once, and, not only to the child,
but to the other members of the family, antitoxin is immediately
administered. The disease runs a regular course and its most dangerous
complication is the membrane which forms in the larynx and threatens
to suffocate the child unless prompt intubation is performed--the
slipping of a silver tube in the larynx to prevent suffocation and
death. The early use of antitoxin greatly lessens all these serious
complications.

Care must be exercised to prevent sudden heart failure; and this is
done by raising the child to an upright position with the utmost care;
while you insist upon him lying quietly upon his back or his side,
long after the disease has left his throat. While the throat or nose
is the seat of disease, the toxins from these most dreaded
diphtheritic microbes spread through the lymph channels and the blood
vessels to the heart itself--so weakening that organ that it sometimes
suddenly fails, or becomes more or less crippled for life. These
serious results are to be prevented by the science of good nursing and
the prompt use of antitoxin. In these days the "Schick test" may be
administered for the purpose of ascertaining whether one is
susceptible to contracting diphtheria.

A physician is always in charge of diphtheria, and he will supply
directions for the bowels, the diet, and the sprays for the nose and
throat, and the general well-being of the suffering child. Isolation
and quarantine should continue for two weeks, and in bad cases three
weeks, after the membrane has disappeared from the throat.


WHOOPING COUGH

A child suffering from a continuous cough, particularly if it is
accompanied by a whoop or a condition which is so often seen in
children who cough--not able to stop--should not be taken to church,
nor to the movies, nor allowed to go to school; neither should he be
allowed to leave his own yard. The average duration of the disease is
usually six weeks. The child should have an abundance of fresh air,
should spend much of his time out of doors, and while in the house
should avoid dust of every kind; at night he should not be exposed to
drafts. Call the physician early in the case and he may attempt to
thwart the progress of the disease by certain administrations of
vaccine medication.

In very bad cases, where a young child cannot catch his breath and
gets blue in the face--which, fortunately, is uncommon--he should be
slapped in the face with a towel wet in cold water; or, he may be
lifted into a tub of warm water, then quickly in cold water, then back
into the warm, etc. Hygienic measures should prevail, such as keeping
the bowels open, the skin clean, and the use of the usual throat
gargles and nasal sprays. Do not be misguided by the old-time thought
that whooping cough must run its course; for, if medical aid is
promptly secured, the disease may often be cut short and the severe
paroxysms greatly lessened.


EYE INFECTIONS

Not long ago while in North Dakota near Canada, we took a trip one day
just over the border to visit several villages of Russian peasants. We
found the boys and girls of nearly the entire village suffering from
trachoma--a dangerous, infectious disease of the eyes which spreads
alarmingly from one child to another.

We saw the disease in all of its varying degrees among the children.
Some of them had swollen, reddened lids. A discharge of pus was coming
from the eyes of others, and they could not look toward a light or the
sun. This disease is spread in a hundred different ways--through the
common use of wash basins, towels, handkerchiefs, tools, toys, door
knobs, gates, etc., and that is the reason why these isolated villages
of foreign people who could neither read nor write the English
language were nearly all so sorely afflicted.

The ordinary condition of "catching cold in the eye" ("pink eye") is
just as infectious as the trachoma which we have mentioned, although
it is more of an acute disorder and nothing like so serious.

In all such cases a physician is to be called immediately, isolate the
patient, and give strict attention to carrying out the doctor's
orders.

Another form of inflammation of the eye which was mentioned in a
previous chapter, is the inflammation of the eye of the newborn.

In most civilized districts at the present, especially where the cases
are attended by a physician, the eyes of all newborn babies are
treated with either argyrol or silver nitrate. Just as soon as
defective sight is discovered in the child the eyes should be examined
at once and proper glasses fitted. While the glimmer and shimmer of
moving pictures may seriously interfere with the child's vision, on
the other hand, this very thing often discovers the defect in the
eyesight earlier than it would otherwise be found out.


RUNNING EARS

Inflammation of the ears was fully covered in our discussion of
adenoids and tonsils, but we would like to add at this time that under
no circumstances should a running ear be regarded lightly. A chronic
mastoiditis (inflammation of the middle ear) often follows measles,
scarlet fever, adenoid infection, and inflammation of the tonsils. The
attention of a specialist should be called to it and his instructions
most carefully carried out; for, when we have a sudden stopping of the
discharge from the ear with high fever and pain behind the ear,
sometimes an operation is imperative or the child may be lost.




CHAPTER XXIX

RESPIRATORY DISEASES


Next to digestive disturbances, babies suffer more frequently from
respiratory disorders--colds, bronchitis, and pneumonia. In fact,
during very early infancy, pneumonia heads the list of infant deaths,
only to be displaced a few months later by that most dreaded summer
disease--diarrhea.

Little tiny babies are so helpless--they are so dependent upon their
seniors for life itself--that our responsibility is indeed great. We
should put forth our best endeavor to avoid and prevent common colds.
Among all the common maladies that afflict the human race "colds"
probably head the list; and, in the case of babies and the younger
children, the common colds often go on into coughs, croup, bronchitis,
and even pneumonia.


WHY BABIES CATCH COLD

1. Someone has brought the infection to him.
2. Somebody coughed in his face.
3. Germ-laden hands have handled the baby.
4. He has drunk from an "infected" glass.
5. There was not enough moisture in the air.
6. Somebody wiped his face with an infected towel.
7. Baby was allowed to play on the cold floor.
8. Baby's lowered vitality could not stand the combined strain
of overeating and clogged up bowels.
9. Baby was kissed in the mouth by a "cold-germ" carrier.
10. Baby was dressed too warmly--and then taken out.
11. Somebody carelessly breathed in baby's face.
12. He slept in a stuffy room.
13. His extremities got chilled.
14. Baby has adenoids or diseased tonsils.

Babies should not be allowed to sit or play on cold, drafty floors.
They may play on mother's bed whose open side is protected with
high-back chairs, or they may play in their own bed whose raised sides
are sheltered by blankets.

It is possible for a mother so to disinfect her hands, and so garb
herself with clean, washable garments, that, although she may be
suffering from an acute cold, she may continue to care for her baby
and the baby need not contract the cold.


CORYZA--COLD IN THE HEAD

This most annoying ailment, a cold in the head, is particularly hard
on babies because the obstruction of the nasal passages not only makes
breathing difficult, but renders nursing well-nigh impossible.

The throat end of the eustachium tube (the ear tube) is found in the
upper and back part of the throat, just behind the nose. The infection
of the cold extends from both the nose and throat and there results a
spreading inflammatory process on through these ear tubes into the
middle ear itself. Now if this tube swells so much that it entirely
closes, as so often happens in cases of "cold in the head" as well as
in constant irritation from adenoids, then may follow a vast train of
difficulties--earache, mastoiditis, etc.--with the result that the
tiny bones in the middle ear which vibrate so exquisitely may become
ankylosed (stiffened) and deafness often follow. Everything known must
be done to prevent baby's catching "cold in the head." If the sinuses
become infected it may also lead to serious consequences.

When the nose becomes clogged it may be opened up by repeatedly
disinfecting the inside of the nose with oily sprays such as simple
albolene or camphorated-albolene spray.

The bowels should be quickly opened by castor oil, and the feedings
should be cut down at least two-thirds or one-half.

Public drinking cups should always be avoided and kissing the baby be
tabooed.


GRIPPE

The treatment of influenza in infancy and childhood is to avoid
contact with an older person suffering with the grippe. Ordinarily,
the so-called "grippe" is a common, mixed infection--not true
influenza. Coryza and cough are the chief respiratory symptoms which
attend these widespread epidemics. Often vomiting and diarrhea are
seen in the young sufferers.

In cases of grippe put the child to bed and call the doctor. In the
case of the older children, the treatment and care to be recommended
has been fully outlined by the author in the little work entitled _The
Cause and Cure of Colds_.

Complications from the grippe are very frequent in children--such as
severe diarrhea, enlarged glands of the neck, running ears,
bronchitis, pneumonia, and sometimes tuberculosis.

Every effort should be put forth to isolate and quarantine the first
member of the family to be stricken with grippe so that the remaining
members may, if possible, escape an uncomfortable and unhappy siege.


SORE THROAT

The danger of permanent deafness which so often follows a sore throat
as well as a cold in the head, should cause every mother or caretaker
earnestly to begin treatment at the very first sign of a sore throat.
When a little baby gulps or cries on swallowing, a sore throat should
always be suspected and remedial measures promptly instituted.

A most convenient article with which to examine an infant's throat is
a small pocket flashlight. The pillars of the throat or the tonsils or
both may be much inflamed, and since tonsillitis, diphtheria, and
scarlet fever all begin with a sore throat, it is wise early to seek
medical counsel in order that the differential diagnosis may be
promptly made. We urge the mother, as a rule, not to attempt to
diagnose severe cases of sore throat. Send for the physician.

Tonsillitis is a severe form of sore throat which, fortunately, rarely
troubles tiny infants; but for every sore throat, while waiting for
medical help to arrive, lay your plans to empty the bowels, diminish
the quantity of the food, swab or spray the throat, and later closely
follow the physician's advice concerning the general treatment of the
child.


ADENOIDS

Adenoid growths appear as grape-like lymphoid formations located in
the upper and posterior-nasal pharynx. These adenoids secrete a very
toxic, thickened fluid, which slowly makes its way down along the back
wall of the throat, and reddens and inflames first the anterior and
posterior pillars of the throat and then often inflames and enlarges
the tonsils.

Adenoids not only obstruct the respiratory passage way to the throat
and lungs, but they also exert a harmful influence on the general
physical and mental development of the child.

It is nothing less than criminal for heedless parents to allow adenoid
growths to remain in the child's post-nasal pharynx. The little
fellow's face is disfigured, more or less for life, his mentality
dulled, while he is compelled to breathe through his mouth.

An almost miraculous change often follows the complete removal of
these obstructive adenoids--the child takes a renewed interest in
everything about him. More oxygen finds its way to the tissues, his
face takes on better color, he gains in weight, in fact, there appears
to be a complete rejuvenation mentally and physically.

The signs or symptoms of adenoids are mouth breathing, restlessness at
night, snoring, recurring colds, nasal discharge, swelling of the
glands of the neck, poor nutrition, loss of appetite, bed wetting,
impaired hearing, lack of attention, and mental dullness. The removal
of adenoids is neither a serious or difficult procedure, and they may
safely be removed at any age.


DISEASED TONSILS

Tonsils which remain permanently enlarged and show signs of disease
and debilitation--filled crypts--may be removed as early as the fourth
or fifth year, if necessary. If proper treatment does not improve the
tonsils as the child grows older, their removal should seriously be
considered. The tonsils may serve some special secretory or defensive
function during the first few years of life and we think best,
therefore, not to advise their removal--except in extreme cases--until
the child is at least four or five years old.

When it is necessary to attack the tonsils, they should be thoroughly
dissected out--not merely burned or clipped off. If they are properly
removed, the danger of heart trouble, rheumatism, and many other
infections may be considered as greatly lessened.

After five years of age the normal tonsils should begin to shrink, and
at about the beginning of adolescence they should be no larger than a
small lima bean, hidden almost completely out of sight behind the
pillars of the throat. While healthy tonsils may serve some useful
purpose even in the adult, it is almost universally conceded that the
thoroughly bad and diseased tonsil is utterly useless to the
body--only an open gateway for the entrance of infection.


BRONCHITIS

A very common disorder of early infancy and childhood is
bronchitis--an inflammation of the bronchial tubes--accompanied by
severe coughing. Its tendency to pass into pneumonia renders it a
disease for skilled hands to treat--a disorder hardly safe for even
the well-meaning mother to undertake to manage without medical advice
and help. And since bronchitis is usually accompanied by alarming
symptoms of high fever, weakened heart, embarrassed breathing, mottled
or blue skin, green stools, troublesome cough, disturbed sleep,
"stopped up nose," and "choked up throat," it is of utmost importance
not only to seek medical aid early, but also that the mother, herself,
should have definite ideas concerning the proper manner of doing the
following things in the line of treatment:

1. Making and applying a mustard paste.
2. The fashioning of an oil-silk jacket.
3. Improvising a steam tent.
4. Flushing out the colon, and a score of other things which
the watchful doctor may want given any moment.

_Mustard Pastes_ are prepared by mixing one part of mustard and six
parts of flour in warm water and applying to the chest between two
pieces of thin muslin. It is left on just seven minutes and then
talcum powder is thickly sprinkled on the moist, reddened skin; this
powder quickly absorbs all the moisture and leaves the skin in a good
condition--ready for another paste in three hours if it is so ordered.

_The Oil-Silk Jacket_, or pneumonia jacket, consists of three
layers--the inside of cheesecloth, an inner thin sheet of cotton
wadding, and an outside layer of oil silk (procurable at any drug
store). It should open on the shoulder and under the arm on the same
side. It is worn constantly (change for fresh cheesecloth and cotton
every day) during the inflammatory stage; it is removed only during
the mustard pastes.

_A Steam Tent_ may be prepared by placing a sheet over the infant's
crib and allowing steam to enter from a large paper funnel placed in
the nose of a tea kettle of boiling water kept hot on a small stove of
some sort.

The mattress and bedding are covered with rubber sheeting and the
infant's clothes protected from moisture. The baby should remain in
this steamy atmosphere ten minutes at a time.

Another method is to hold baby in arms near the large end of a big
funnel placed in a tea kettle on the gas stove or range, and then have
an assistant help hold a sheet tent over both the mother and babe. Or
the baby carriage may be placed over a small tub of water into which
are dropped several hot bricks. A sheet canopy spread over the
carriage holds the steam in and baby reaps the benefits of the warm
moisture.

_Colonic Flushing_ is necessary when green stools accompany
bronchitis. A well-lubricated end of a large Davidson's syringe is
inserted into the rectum, and with the hips of the baby brought to the
edge of a basin (the heels held in the hands of the assistant), water
is forced into the rectum. Not more than one ordinary cup of water
should be introduced at any one time. After expulsion, another may be
gently injected.

_The diet_ in bronchitis is always reduced so that no extra work will
be thrown on the already overtaxed constitution of the child.

_Absolute rest_ is necessary and perfect quiet should prevail. The
humidity of the room should not be lower than 50 at any time, while
the air should be moderately cool and fresh.

Numerous other details which may be necessary in the management of
bronchitis will be directed by the physicians and nurses in charge of
the case.


SPASMODIC CROUP

It is believed that children with enlarged tonsils and adenoids are
much more subject to croup than others. Although very sudden in its
onset and very alarming, spasmodic croup, fortunately, is seldom
dangerous. A little child goes to bed in apparently normal condition
and wakes up suddenly with a coarse metallic cough, difficult
breathing, and with a distressed expression on the face.

Alternate hot and cold compresses should be applied to the
throat--first the hot cloths (wrung from very hot water) being applied
over the throat, which should be covered with a single thickness of
dry flannel. Then after three minutes of the hot cloths a very cold
cloth is applied to the skin itself for one half minute; then more of
the hot compress, followed again by the short cold, until five such
changes have been made. A bronchitis tent should be quickly improvised
so that the child can be "steamed."

Vomiting must be produced by kerosene (three or four drops on sugar),
alum and molasses, or ipecac (ten drops every fifteen minutes). Some
remedy must be administered continuously until free vomiting occurs. A
good dose of castor oil should be given after the spasm. Suitable
treatment should be administered through the day to prevent a
recurrence of the attack the next night.

The general vital resistance should be raised by outdoor life,
improved circulation, good food; adenoids if present, should be
removed.

Medical advice should be sought in every case of severe croup, for
membraneous croup usually is indicative of diphtheria, and the
diagnosis is important, as on it hangs the determination of the
administration of antitoxin.


PNEUMONIA

Pneumonia is always a serious disease. It is accompanied by high
fever, painful, very short cough, and rapid breathing with a moving in
and out of the edges of the nose as well as the spaces between the
ribs. The possibilities of complications are always great--the dangers
are many--so that the combined watchfulness of both the mother and a
proficient trained nurse are required; not to mention the skill of the
physician.

The steam tent, the mustard paste, the oil-silk jacket and the colonic
flushing (described earlier in this chapter) may all be asked for by
the physician in his untiring efforts to prevent dangerous
complications during the course of the disease.

Plenty of moderately cool, fresh air (without drafts) is of great
benefit. Never allow blue finger tips, or cold ear tips to exist; send
at once for the doctor and administer a hot bath, or wrap in a sheet
dipped in hot mustard water while awaiting his arrival. No mother
should think of attempting to carry her baby through an attack of
bronchitis or pneumonia without the best medical help available.




CHAPTER XXX

THE NERVOUS CHILD


While each child possesses an individuality all its own, nevertheless,
there are certain general principles of psychologic conduct and family
discipline which are more or less applicable to all children. The
so-called nervous child, in addition to the usual methods of child
culture, stands in need of special attention as concerns its early
discipline and training. This chapter will, therefore, be devoted to
special suggestions with regard to the management and training of
those children who are by heredity predisposed to nervousness,
over-excitability, and who possess but a minimum of self-control.


HEREDITARY NERVOUSNESS

The so-called nervous child--all things equal--is the child who is
born into the world with an unbalanced or inefficiently controlled
nervous system; and while it is all too true that the common nursery
methods of "spoiling the child" are often equally to blame with
heredity for the production of an erratic disposition and an
uncontrolled temper, nevertheless, it is now generally recognized that
the foundation of the difficulties of the nervous child reaches back
into its immediate and remote ancestral heredity.

I no longer doubt but that many of these babies with a bad nervous
heredity, who are born predisposed to Saint Vitus' dance, bad temper,
chronic worry, neurasthenia, and hysteria could be spared much of
their early troubles and later miseries by prompt and proper methods
of early nursery discipline.

These nervous babies are born into the world with an abnormal lack of
self-control. Their "inhibition control" over the natural and
spontaneous tendency of the nervous system to manifest its inherent
impulses and passing whims is decidedly deficient. The child is unduly
sensitive, whines, hollers, or flies into a violent rage when its will
is crossed in the least degree. Such a child sometimes keeps its
mother living in constant terror because, when its will is crossed in
any particular, it will scream and hold its breath until it turns
black in the face and sometimes actually goes into a convulsion.

In dealing with these unfortunate little ones, fathers and mothers,
while they should be firm and persistent in their methods of
correction, should also be kind and patient; fully recognizing that
whatever undesirable traits the little ones manifest they have come by
honestly--these naughty tendencies being the result either of heredity
or spoiling, for both of which the parents stand responsible.


EARLY TRAINING

One of the very first things that a child, especially the nervous
child, should learn is that crying and other angerful manifestations
accomplish absolutely nothing. The greatest part of the successful
training of the nervous child should take place before it is three and
one-half years of age. It should early learn to lie quietly in its
little bed and be entirely happy without receiving any attention or
having any fuss made over it. It should not become the center of a
circle of admiring and indulgent family friends and caretakers who
will succeed in effectually destroying what little degree of
self-control it may be fortunate enough to possess.

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