Various - "Knickerbocker, or New York Monthly Magazine, March 1844"

Edward Bellamy - "The Duke of Stockbridge"

Jean de La Fontaine - "The Fables of La Fontaine"

Annie Besant - "London Lectures of 1907"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child




At the time of conception, countless numbers of male germ-cells
(sperms) are lost--only one out of the multitude of these perfectly
formed sperms made up of the mosaics of hereditary depressors,
determiners, and suppressors that so subtly dictate and determine the
characteristics and qualifications of the on-coming individual--I
repeat, only one of these wonderful sperms finds the waiting ovum
(Fig. 1). In this search for the ovum, the sperm propels itself
forward by means of its tail--for the male sperm in general appearance
very much resembles the little pollywog of the rain barrel (Fig. 1).

The fateful meeting of the sperm and the ovum takes place usually in
the upper end of one of the fallopian tubes. It is a wonderful
occasion. The wide-awake, vibrating lifelike sperm plunges head first
and bodily into the ovum. The tail, which has propelled this bundle of
life through the many wanderings of its long and perilous journey, now
no longer needed, drops off and is lost and forgotten. This union of
the male and female sex cells is called "fertilization." There
immediately follows the most complete blending of the two germ
cells--one from the father and one from the mother--each with its
peculiar individual, family, racial, and national characteristics.
Here the combined determiners determine the color of the eyes, the
characteristics of the hair, the texture of the skin, its color, the
size of the body, the stability of the nervous system, the size of the
brain, etc., while the suppressors do a similar work in the
modification of this or that family or racial characteristic.


THE FIRST WEEKS OF LIFE

The fertilized ovum remains in the tube for about one week, when it
slowly makes its way down into the uterus, all the while rapidly
undergoing segmentation or division. It does not grow much in size
during this first week, but divides and subdivides first, into two
parts, then four, then eight, then sixteen and so on, until we have a
peculiar little body made up of many equally divided parts, and known
as the "Mulberry Mass" (Fig. 1). The blending of the sperm and ovum
has been perfect, the division of the original body multitudinous.

[Illustration:
Sperm and Ovum Cell Division

Fetus at Six Weeks Fetus at Three Months

Fig. 1. Steps in Early Development]

While this division of the united sex cells is progressing, a
wonderful change is also taking place in the inside lining of the
uterus. Instead of the usual thin lining, it has greatly thickened and
has become highly sensitized, and as the ovum enters the uterus from
the fallopian tube, this sensitized lining catches it and holds it in
its folds--actually covers it with itself--holding the precious mass
much as the cocoon, you have so often seen fastened to the side of a
plant or leaf, holds its treasure of life.

Just as soon as the new uterine home is found the baby heart begins to
make its appearance, as also do many other rudimentary parts. By the
end of the third week, our round mass has flattened and curved and
elongated, and the nervous system and brain begin to develop, while
the primitive ears begin to appear. At this time, the alimentary canal
presents itself as one straight tube which is a trifle larger at the
head end. And it is interesting to note that at this early date, even
the arms and legs are beginning to bud and push out from the body.


LATER EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

In the fourth and fifth weeks, the lungs and the pancreas may be
found, the heart develops, the nervous system has taken on more
definite form, and several of the larger blood-vessels are appearing.

By the eighth week, by the most wonderful and complicated processes of
overlapping, pushing out, indentation, enfolding, budding, pressing,
and curving, the majority of the important structures are formed--the
eyes, ears, nose, hands, feet, abdominal organs, and numerous glands.
Thus, at the end of two months, almost every structure and organ
necessary to life is present in a rudimentary state.


AT THE END OF THREE MONTHS

By the close of the third month, witness the work of creation! From
the blending of the two germ cells there has come forth a beautifully
formed body (Fig. 1). True, it is but three and one half inches in
length, but it is nevertheless a perfect body. About this time, the
sex may be determined. The eyes, nose, ears, chin, arms and legs and
even the fingers and toes may all be clearly distinguished.

A "jelly mass" at three months? No, by no means! No! Life and form and
features are all there. It really has a face, whose features may
easily be delineated.

In all my experience, I have yet to find the woman who wished to
continue in her wicked and criminal intent after she had listened to
this story of the creative development of the first three months of
her "child enmothered."

During the next four months, which take us to the close of the
seventh, rapid growth and farther development take place to the
extent, that, should birth occur at that time, life may continue under
proper conditions.


LAST WEEKS OF PREGNANCY

Everything is now nearing completion--only awaiting further growth,
development, and strength--except some of the bone development, which
takes place during the remaining two months. Growth is rapid, strength
is doubled, and as the two hundred and seventy-three days draw to a
close, everything has been completed. It has all taken place according
to the laws of creation in an infinite way and with clock-like
precision.

With the developmental growth of the product of conception, the uterus
or room that had been particularly prepared for the "big reception" of
the second week, has also grown to great dimensions. It fills almost
the entire abdomen and as a result of the pressure against the
diaphragm the breathing is somewhat embarrassed.

The door of this "room" has been closed by a special mechanism,
while, in the fullness of time, Mother Nature begins the delicate work
of opening the door, through whose portals passes out into the world
the completed babe.

The authors feel that this discussion of, and protest against,
abortions, _should be_ accompanied by an appropriate consideration of
the control of pregnancy. We are never going to eliminate the abortion
curse of present-day civilization by merely preaching against
it--warnings and denouncements alone will not suffice to remove the
stain. Notwithstanding our feelings and convictions in this respect,
we are also well aware of the fact that public sentiment is not now
sufficiently ripe to welcome such a full and frank discussion of the
subject of the prevention of conception as the authors would feel
called upon to present; we are equally cognizant of the fact that
existing postal regulations and other Federal laws are of such a
character (at least capable of such interpretation) as possibly to
render even the scientific and dignified consideration of such
subjects entirely out of question.




CHAPTER III

BIRTHMARKS AND PRENATAL INFLUENCE


In the preceding chapter we learned that when the two germ cells came
together, there occurred a complete blending of two separate and
distinct hereditary lines, reaching from the present away back into
the dim and distant past. By the union of these two ancestral strains
a new personality is formed, a new individual is created, with its own
peculiar characteristics.


HEREDITARY TRAITS

Probably none of the laboriously acquired accomplishments of the
present generation can be directly--and as such--handed down to our
children. What we are to be and what we will do in this world was
largely determined by the laws of heredity by the time we were well
started on our development experience _en-utero_ during the third or
fourth week of our prenatal existence, as outlined in a former
chapter.

It is now generally accepted in scientific circles that acquired
characteristics are not transmissible. Someone has aptly stated this
truth by saying that "wooden heads are inherited, but wooden legs are
not." This does not by any means imply that we do not have power and
ability to fashion our careers and carve out our own destiny, within
the possible bounds of our hereditary endowment and environmental
surroundings. Heredity does determine our "capital stock," but our own
efforts and acts determine the interest and increase which we may
derive from our natural endowment. From the moment conception takes
place--the very instant when the two sex cells meet and blend--then
and there "the gates of heredity are forever closed." From that time
on we are dealing with the problems of nutrition, development,
education, and environment; therefore, so-called prenatal influence
can have nothing whatever to do with heredity.

A father may have acquired great talent as a physician or a surgeon,
in fact he may hold the chair of surgery in a medical college, but
each of his children come into the world without the slightest
knowledge of the subject, and, as far as direct and immediate heredity
is concerned, will have to work just about as hard to master the
subject as will the same average class of children whose parents were
not surgeons. This must not be taken to mean that certain abilities
and tendencies are not inheritable--for they are; but they are
inherited _through_ the parents--and not _from_ them--directly. These
transmitted characteristics are largely "stock" traits, and usually
have long been present in the "ancestral strain."


MATERNAL IMPRESSIONS

A mother may sing and pray all through the nine months of expectancy,
or she may weep and scold, or even curse. In neither case can she
influence the spiritual or moral tendencies of her child and cause it,
through supposed prenatal influence, to be born with criminal
tendencies or to grow up a pious lad or become a devout minister.
These tendencies and characteristics are all largely determined by the
"depressors," "suppressors," and "determiners" which were present in
the two microscopic and mosaic germ cells which united to start the
embryo at the time of conception.

The child is destined to be born, endowed, and equipped with the
mental, nervous, and physical powers which his line has fallen heir to
all through the past ages. Down through the ages education, religion,
environment, and other special influences have no doubt played a small
part in influencing and determining hereditary characteristics; just
as environment in the ages past changed the foot of the evolving horse
from a flat, "cushiony" foot with many toes (much needed in the soft
bog of his earlier existence) into the "hoof foot" of later days, when
harder soil and necessity for greater fleetness, assisted by some sort
of "selection" and "survival," conspired to give us the foot of our
modern horse, and this story is all plainly and serially told in the
fossil and other remains found in our own hemisphere. It would appear
that many, many generations of education and environment are required
to influence markedly the established and settled train of heredity
regarding any particular element or characteristic in any particular
line or lines of hereditary tendencies.


EUGENIC SUPERSTITION

There is probably more misinformation in the minds of the people on
the subject of "maternal impressions" and "birthmarks" than any other
scientific or medical subject. The popular belief that, if a pregnant
woman should see an ugly sight or pass through some terrifying
experience, in some mysterious way her unborn child would be "marked,"
deformed, or in some way show some blemish at birth, is a time-honored
and ancient belief.

Such unscientific and unwarranted teaching has been handed down
from mother to daughter through the ages, while the poor, misguided
souls of expectant women have suffered untold remorse, heaped blame
upon themselves, lived lives literally cursed with fear and
dread--veritable slaves to superstition and bondage--all because of
the simple fact that a certain percentage of all children born in this
world have sustained some sort of an injury or "embryological
accident" during the first days of fetal existence. For instance, take
the common birthmark of a patch of reddened skin on the face, brow, or
neck. As soon as the baby is born, the worried mother asks in anxious
tones: "Doctor, is it all right, is it perfect, has it got any
birthmarks?" On being told that the baby has a round, red patch on its
left brow, the ever-ready statement of the mother comes forth: "Yes, I
knew I'd mark it, I was picking berries one day about three months
ago, and I ate and ate, until I suddenly remembered I might mark my
baby, and before I knew what I was doing, I touched my brow and I just
knew I had marked my baby." Do you know, reader, that that birthmark
was present fully four months before she passed through that
experience in the berry patch? And yet so worried and apprehensive
has been the pregnant mother, that, although she can never
successfully predict the "birthmarks" and blemishes of her child,
nevertheless when these defects are disclosed at birth she is
unfailingly able immediately to recall some extraordinary experience
which she has carefully stored away in her memory and which, to her
mind, most fully explains and accounts for the defect.

Is it much wonder that in the very early days of embryonic existence,
during the hours of delicate cell division, indentation, outpushing,
elongation, and sliding of young cells--is it much wonder, I
repeat--that there occur a few malformations, blemishes, or other
accidents which persist as "birthmarks?"


CAUSES OF BIRTHMARKS

There are many factors which may enter into the production of
birth-blemishes, deformities, monstrosities, etc. These influences are
all governed by certain definite laws of cause and effect. A
pre-existent systemic disease in the father, or a coexistent disorder
in the mother, may be a leading factor. A mechanical injury, such as a
sudden fall, a blow, or a kick, or certain kinds of prolonged
pressure, not to mention restrictions and contractions of the maternal
bony structures, may all possibly contribute something to these
prenatal miscarriages of growth and development. Maternal or prenatal
embryonic infections could bring about many sorts of birthmarks and
malformations. These defects might also be caused by certain types of
severe inflammatory disorders in the uterus during the early days of
pregnancy.

The same factors that produce the accidents of embryology resulting in
malformations or monstrosities in the human family, are also operative
in the case of our lesser brethren of the animal kingdom, for
monstrosities and birth-defects are very common among the lower
animals, notwithstanding the fact that the animal mother probably does
not "believe in birthmarks."

"It is a striking fact that during the nineteenth century, the
teratologists, those who have scientifically investigated the causes
of monstrosities and fetal morbid states, have almost without
exception, rejected the theory of maternal impressions." Scientists
and physicians are coming to recognize the fact that fears and frights
do not in any way act as causes in the production of monstrosities and
deformities. Let us seek forever to liberate all womankind from the
common and harassing fear and the definite dread and worry that,
because they failed to control themselves at the instant of some
terrifying sight or experience, they were directly responsible for the
misfortune of their abnormal offspring.

It should be remembered that there exists no direct connection
whatsoever between the nervous system of the unborn child and the
nervous system of the mother. The only physiological or embryological
relationship is of a nutritional order, and even that is indirect and
remote.


ROLE OF THE PLACENTA

By the end of the third month, the "cocoon" attachment described in
chapter two has disappeared; the fetus is slowly pushed away from the
uterus which has so snugly held it for more than eleven weeks; while
upon the exact site of its previous attachment the thickened uterine
membrane undergoes a very interesting and important change--definite
blood vessels begin to form--which begin indirectly to form contact
with the maternal vessels, and thus it is that the placenta, or "after
birth" is formed; and then, by means of the umbilical cord,
nourishment from the mother's blood-stream is carried to the growing
and rapidly developing child. In exchange for the nourishing stream of
life-giving fluid by which growth and development take place, the
embryo gives off its poisonous excretions which are carried back to
the placenta, from which they are absorbed into the veinous
circulation of the mother; so, while the mother does, through the
process of nutrition, influence growth and development in the embryo,
she is wholly unable to produce specific changes and such definite
developmental errors as birthmarks and other deformities.

Just as truly as it would be impossible so to frighten a setting hen
as to "mark" or otherwise influence the form or character of the
chicks which would ultimately come forth from the eggs in her nest,
it is just as truly impossible to frighten the pregnant mother and
thereby influence the final developmental product of the human egg
which is so securely tucked away in its uterine nest; for, when
conception has occurred, the human embryo is just as truly an
egg--fashioned and formed--as is the larger and shell-contained embryo
of the chick which lies in the nest of the setting hen.

And so we are compelled to recognize the fact that there is little
more danger to the unborn child when the mother is frightened than
when the father is scared. The one contributes as much as the other to
the general character of the child, while neither is to blame for
development errors and defects.


SUGGESTION AND HEREDITY

Certain fears are suggested to children. For twenty years I lived
under the delusion that I was terribly afraid of snakes--more so than
any other human being; for I was told when a mere child that I had
been "marked with the fear of snakes," that just two months before I
saw the peep of day, my esteemed mother had been terrified by a snake.
Everywhere I went, I announced to sympathizing and ofttimes
mischievous friends, that "I was marked with the fear of snakes and
must never be frightened with them." It is needless to add in passing,
that I was teased and frightened all through my girlhood days. I was a
veritable slave to the bondage of snake-fear. Everywhere I went I
looked for my dreaded foe, expecting to sit on one, step on one, or to
have one drop into my lap from the roof.

The day of deliverance came after marriage, when in a supreme effort
to deliver me from the shackles of fear, the goodman of the house
tenderly, but firmly, maneuvered a morning walk so that it halted in
front of a large plate-glass window of the Snake Drug Store in San
Francisco. Just back of this plate glass, and within eighteen inches
of my very nose, were fifty-seven varieties of the reptiles, big and
small, streaked and checkered, quiet and active. After much
remonstrance and waiting, I came-to--gazed at the markings, beautiful
in their exactness--while slowly the change of mind took place. Faith
took the place of fear, calmness subdued panic, and I was wondrously
delivered from the veritable bondage of a score of years. And so it is
that the mother suffers and then the child suffers, ofttimes a living
death, because of the superstition "I'm marked," while there is ever
present the fear or dread that "something is going to happen, because
I'm different from all other individuals--because 'I'm marked!'"




CHAPTER IV

THE HYGIENE OF PREGNANCY


As soon as a woman discovers that she is pregnant, she should sit down
and quietly think out the plan for the nine months of expectancy.

The cessation of the menses may come as a surprise to her, and for a
while she is more or less confused; she must go over the whole
situation and adjust future plans to fit in with this new and all
important fact. From a large experience with maternity cases, I have
reached the conclusion that the larger percentage of pregnancies do
come as a surprise, and in many instances a complete change of program
must be painstakingly thought out. This is especially true of the
business woman, the professional woman, the busy club woman, or the
active society woman.


EARLY PLANNING

Let me say to the woman who is pregnant for the first time, the
experiences of the pregnant state should cause you no fear, worry, or
anxiety. Giving birth to a baby is a perfectly natural, normal
procedure, and if you are in reasonable health--if your physician
tells you you are a fairly normal woman--then you can dismiss further
thought of danger and go on your way rejoicing. For thousands of years
maternity has been women's exclusive profession and no doubt will
continue to be many ages hence.

By far the most important and the first thing to do is carefully to
select the best physician your means will allow, and place yourself
under his or her care. Your doctor will help you to plan wisely and
intelligently during the waiting time, for physicians have learned
from experience that the better care the pregnant woman receives, the
easier will be her labor, and the more speedy and uneventful the
recovery.

And now, we proceed to take up one by one the particular phases of the
hygiene of pregnancy which touch the comfort, convenience, and health
of both the mother and her unborn child.


THE CLOTHING

At all times and under all circumstances the pregnant woman's clothing
should be comfortable, suitable for the occasion, artistic, and
practical. And to be thus beautifully clothed is to be as
inconspicuous as is possible. Of all times, occasions, and conditions,
that of pregnancy demands modesty in color, simplicity in style,
together with long straight lines (Fig. 2). For the "going out" dress,
select soft shades of brown, blue, wine, or dark green. Let the house
dresses be simple, easy to launder, without constricting waist bands,
of the one-piece type, in every way suitable for the work at hand.
Under this outer dress, a princess petticoat should cover a specially
designed maternity corset (if any corset at all be worn), to which is
attached side hose-supporters. A support for the breasts may be worn
if desired, it should be loose enough to allow perfect freedom in
breathing.

The union suit may be of linen, silk, or cotton, with the weight
suitable for the season. Stockings and shoes should be of a
comfortable type, straight last, low or medium heel and at least as
wide as the foot. There are two or three shoes on the market that are
particularly good, whose arches are flexible, heels comfortable,
straight last, and whose soles look very much like the lines of the
foot unclothed. This style is particularly good during the maternity
days. Painful feet are a great strain upon the general nervous system.
Who of us has not seen women with strained, tense faces hobbling about
in high-heeled, narrow-toed shoes? And if we followed them we would
not only see tenseness and strain in the features of the face, but
could hear outbursts of temper on the least provocation. Aching feet
produce general irritability. If ease of body and calmness of spirit
is desired, wear shoes that are comfortable, and the surprising part
of it is that many of them are very good looking.

[Illustration: Fig. 2. The "Expectant" Costume

The long lines, so admirable for maternity wear are portrayed in this
handsome afternoon costume. Tunic waist is made with shoulder yoke
from which fullness hangs in fine plaiting with panel at back, front
and under arms. The set in vest is of black-striped gold cloth trimmed
with gold thread crochet buttons and with tiny waistcoat of black
moire. Sleeves are of Georgette crepe. Loose adjustable girdle of
black moire ribbon. Full skirt is attached on elastic to china silk
underbodice. Material Crepe de chine or any other soft, clinging
fabric.]

Toward the end of pregnancy ofttimes the feet swell, in which instance
larger shoes should be worn in connection with the bandaging of the
ankles and legs.

During the latter days of expectancy an abdominal supporter may be
worn advantageously. Much of the backache and heaviness in the pelvis
is entirely relieved by the supporting of the pendulous abdomen with a
well-fitted binder. An ordinary piece of linen crash may be fitted
properly by the taking in of darts at the lower front edge; or elastic
linen, or silk binder may be secured; in fact, any binder that
properly supports the abdomen will answer the purpose.

It should be within the means of every pregnant woman to have a neat,
artistic out-door costume, for social, club and church occasions (Fig.
2). For no reason but illness should an expectant mother shut herself
up in doors.

True men and true women hold the very highest esteem for the maternal
state, and the opinion of all others matters not; so joyfully go forth
to the club, social event, concert, or church; and to do this, you
must have a well-designed, artistic dress. The material does not
matter much, but the shade and style are important.

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