Robert Green Ingersoll - "The Works of Robert G. Ingersoll, Volume VIII."

Marcel Proust - "A L'Ombre Des Jeunes Filles en Fleur, Volume 1"

Thomas Hill Green - "An Estimate of the Value and Influence of Works of Fiction in Modern Times"

Edith Howes - "Wonderwings and other Fairy Stories"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child




The folding go-cart and the small carrying-basket are to be used only
in an emergency. They are convenient in traveling or shopping for the
mother who has no maid or caretaker with whom to leave the baby; but
they are not satisfactory pleasure vehicles, neither should the baby
be left to sit fastened in one of these carts for any great length of
time.

The mattress of the carriage should be of hair, while needed warmth
may be secured by the use of a thick, light-weight woolen blanket,
placed under the child and brought up and around him.

A top covering for the carriage must have washing or dry cleaning
qualities. A crocheted afghan, a washable embroidered cover, or a firm
silk puff, are good covers. The one thing to be remembered is that
everything about the carriage soils readily, and if this thought
enters into the selection of fabrics, you will not be disappointed
when cleaning time comes.

The carriage pillow should be of down, except in the very hot months,
when hair is preferable. Simple, easily laundered slips may be made
from two men's-size handkerchiefs.


BOW LEGS

Particularly in boys and men, bow legs are not only awkward but are a
noticeable deformity; even the little folks notice them and often
remark about it, as did one child who sat profoundly eyeing a very
important visitor who stood before the cheerfully lighted grate
warming himself. The little fellow suddenly exclaimed, "Oh, Mister,
look out! You're warping." Such a painful experience might have been
saved this distinguished gentleman had his mother or caretaker not
urged his standing too soon; and at the same time had fed him on the
proper food, so as to avoid "rickets." The ossification or hardening
of the bones of the legs continues all through childhood and is often
interfered with by improper feeding during the first two years of
life. Urging the little people to stand too early is to be
discouraged. Nature prepares them for it when the right time comes;
which time varies--thin children standing and walking usually much
earlier than heavy children.


LIFTING THE BABY

A very young baby should be lifted from his bed by grasping the
clothing below the feet with the right hand, while the left hand slips
underneath the back and with spreading fingers supports the neck and
head. It is then raised upon the left arm. During the early months the
entire spine must be supported in this manner (See Fig. 6). In
grasping a baby under the arms or about the waist, undue pressure is
made upon the abdomen and chest. Serious injury often follows the
careless lifting of the older child by his wrists or hands. The
throwing or whirling of the older children by the arms is strongly
condemned. Dislocations have followed such careless so-called fun.


PREVENTION OF FALLS

In the selection of the high chair, care should be given to the
possibility of overturning. Fortunately, baby's bones are only
partially ossified, else he would sustain many fractures in the
frequent falls and bumps. When we pause to consider the thoughtless
manner in which many babies are left on beds and in unguarded chairs,
it is not strange that they fall so often.

Open windows must be carefully protected by well-fastened screens or
by slats of wood. Beds afford a good place for a romp or play, but
high-backed chairs should be placed at the side to prevent a fall. A
strap across the waist should be fastened to the sides of the carriage
to prevent falling out. Everything possible should be done to prevent
falls. Outdoor hammocks are exceedingly dangerous for the baby. Never
leave a child in one unguarded. A little caution, a large amount of
common sense--the "good use of brains"--will prevent scars and other
lifelong deformities.


THE BABY'S BREASTS

Never allow anyone to manipulate or "break down" a swollen breast in a
girl or boy baby during the first week or two. This swelling occurs
often and should not be interfered with. A hot compress of boracic
acid solution may be applied, after which a piece of sterile gauze
should be placed over the swollen part and held on by a muslin
bandage. Secure medical attention if the swelling does not go down in
a day or two.


VISITING

Unless absolutely necessary, babies should not be taken on trains and
street cars; nor should they take long journeys into the country to
attend "reunions." Infections accompany crowds, and baby is far better
off at home, in the quiet of his natural surroundings, than he is in
the dust, closeness, and bustle of illy ventilated cars, streets,
shops, movies, or even at church. Many an infant has been sacrificed
by a train journey to "show him off" to the fond grandparents; scores
of babies acquire whooping cough at the movies; and many a baby has
nearly lost his life by catching measles, scarlet fever, or diphtheria
at church; while the only thing accomplished by the church experiment
was the spoiling of the entire service by its fretful, tired cry--the
infant's only means of protest.


THE RUNABOUT BABY

"Runabouts" are the little folks between the age of one and three
years, and they require good care, good feeding, and warm and
comfortable dressing.

In general, they need the same fresh air, daily outings, and daily
naps of the younger child. Their hands need washing oftener, and their
clothing, which is usually a play romper, should be either of white or
fast colors that it may be most thoroughly boiled, thus getting a
good disinfection. Their eyes, nose, and ears, as well as the genital
organs, all require the most rigid daily cleanliness.

The "bugbear" second summer need not be feared by the mother who takes
particular care to see that:

1. The drinking water is boiled or distilled.
2. The orange is not overripe.
3. The banana is not underripe or overripe and is not eaten
in chunks.
4. The milk is fresh and pasteurized.
5. The baby does not eat candy, ice cream, or other forbidden
foods.
6. The baby's bowels move daily.
7. He does not remain dirty.
8. He naps daily.
9. He is protected from dust, flies, flees, and mosquitoes.
10. He does not go visiting, to church, shops, or "movies."

The second summer is no harder than the first, as good clean water,
easily digested foods, and good general hygiene are all a baby needs
at this time. A large army of little folks grow up in spite of the
little care they get and the place in which they live. Did they not
possess good vital resistance, sound nerves, and good digestion, the
children of the "slums" and of the "ghetto" would quickly succumb to
their unhygienic surroundings.


TOYS

In selecting toys for the infant, it must be borne in mind that they
will be put to the mouth, and hence they should not be:

1. Toys with sharp points.
2. Small enough to swallow, or to push into the nose.
3. Covered with hair or wool.
4. Glass that is easily broken.
5 Painted toys.
6. Toys that may be taken apart and the small parts swallowed.
7. Paper books that may be chewed or torn.

Bear in mind that babies are easily amused with such simple toys as:

1. A half-dozen clothes pins.
2. An aluminum pan and a spoon.
3. Rubber toys (easily washed).
4. Celluloid dolls, ducks, and other floating toys.
5. Blocks.
6. A large rubber ball.

The older children have wonderfully good times out of doors with a
spade, a cart, and the sandpile. Boys most thoroughly enjoy a track
with its engine and cars, switches, etc. They build sham
fortifications, truly works of art, with their blocks, while the girls
are happiest with dolls and household sets. However, occasionally we
meet a mother who has a girl who is really a boy in her tastes for
toys, and so we say to that mother: give the little girl the desire of
her heart; if it's a train instead of a doll, or a toy gun instead of
a doll's trunk, well and good, let her have them. What we want are
free and easy, natural, children. They are much more likely to have
good nerves, clean thoughts, sound digestion, and equalized
circulation.




CHAPTER XXIV

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT


The newborn baby comes into the world in an absolutely helpless
condition and completely unconscious of his surroundings. He
unconsciously performs certain acts, such as opening his eyes, crying,
urination, movement of the bowels, and even nursing of the breast; but
there is probably no distinct voluntary action connected with any of
these acts. All of his senses at birth are practically dormant, but as
the days and weeks go by, they begin to awaken.


SPECIAL SENSES

The baby cries, but the tears do not actually flow over the lids until
he is three or four months old, and while the baby may fix his eyes
upon objects and distinguish light from darkness, he will not wink nor
blink when the finger is brought close to the eye. Vision is probably
not complete until the beginning of the third month.

Infants are said to be deaf for the first twenty-four to forty-eight
hours after birth, and some authorities hold that they are deaf for
several days.

Taste is early developed, as a newborn baby will often repeatedly show
a desire to taste sweet things, while if sour or bitter things are put
to the tongue, it shows its displeasure.


HAIR AND SCALP

The newborn baby usually comes into the world with a good head of
hair, but the end of the first or second week witnesses the falling
out of much of this hair, and falling may continue for even another
week or two. The hair is often worn off on the back of the head
because of constant friction upon the pillow.

Children differ greatly in the growth of hair. Some of them come into
the world with heavy hair, and others lose it quickly and remain
nearly bald-headed until after the first year.

As the second hair grows in, it is usually lighter than it was at
birth and lighter than it will be later in life, as the hair has a
tendency to grow darker as the years go by.

The scalp should receive the care already mentioned. As the hair comes
in it should be shampooed once in two weeks and brushed often, making
it healthy and vigorous.


MISSHAPEN HEADS

It is wise to turn the baby first on one side and then on the other
and not allow him to sleep night after night on one side of his head.
The newborn head may be misshapen by laying the child constantly on
one side, and the ear may be misshapen if it is allowed to curl under
or become pressed forward. Markedly protruding ears may be partially
corrected by having the child wear a well-ventilated cap made for the
purpose.


THE SALIVA

Many mothers think that the presence of drooling or the excessive flow
of saliva is associated with teeth cutting. While it may be associated
with the teeth, this is not usually the case; it is more probably due
to the beginning of a new function of secretion. The newborn baby has
only enough saliva to furnish moisture for the mouth, and not until
the age of four or five months does saliva really flow, and since the
teeth appear a bit later we often confuse the institution of a new
secretion with the oncoming teeth.


SENSATIONS AND RECOGNITION

The young baby manifests a number of sensations early in its career.
Hunger and satisfaction as well as comfort and discomfort seem to be
recognized by the little fellow. He early learns that the approach of
someone when he cries usually means that he is to be taken up, and he
usually ceases crying as soon as he is taken up. He early manifests a
sense of comfort when he is cuddled; there also is early present a
manifestation of the desire to sleep, and the satisfying pleasure of a
drink of water.

At the age of three months he has recognized many things such as the
light or a bright object. He distinctly recognizes his mother and
often smiles at her approach. He recognizes his hands at four months,
and now begins to recognize other members of the household aside from
his mother. Even as early as one month, he may smile at his mother. At
two months of age he will often smile at other members of the family.
He laughs out loud or chuckles during the fourth or fifth month. But,
on the whole, he must be considered as just a little animal whose
greatest needs are to have his appetite and thirst satisfied, his
little body clothed, and his little nerves put to rest--to sleep.


SITTING ALONE

At four months the normal baby will hold up his head; and if he is
supported at the back with a pillow, he will sit erectly--holding his
head up--at six months; while at eight months or not later than nine,
the normal child should sit alone on the floor with no support. Later
in the ninth month he often manifests a desire to bear his weight upon
his feet. Care is here urged that the mother protect the little fellow
at this time and not allow him to rest his weight upon his feet but a
moment or two at a time.

He will reach for a ball suspended from the top of his carriage or bed
as early as the fifth month. About this time he discovers his toes
while in his bath. He will handle a rattle at six or seven months, and
shows delight in such toys.


DENTITION

In both the upper and lower jawbones of the newborn infant there are
hidden away in snug little cavities two sets of tiny teeth; the first
set, or milk teeth, and the second set, or permanent teeth. These
rudimentary teeth grow as the baby grows and push their way up or down
from the jawbones until they finally make their appearance through the
gums. The milk teeth appear in a definite way and in five definite
groups.

There should be no physical disturbance at the appearance of the
teeth, which is a physiological process, and it is to be deplored that
all of the ills of babyhood are laid upon the teeth with the careless
remark: "Oh, its his teeth!" Many, many illnesses are neglected
because our inexperienced mother has been told that she can expect
"anything to happen when the baby is cutting its teeth." Now, it is
true that the babies of many families do have trouble in cutting their
teeth, but the majority of babies cut their teeth comfortably and the
first knowledge anyone has of it is the appearance of the tooth
itself. As the teeth push their way nearer the surface of the gums,
there is a broadening and a hardening of the gums themselves, and it
is the exception rather than the rule that the baby needs any help in
cutting his teeth.

Usually by the time the baby is seven months old it has two central
teeth on the lower jaw (the central incisors), which constitute the
first group. The second group of teeth to appear is the four upper
central teeth which are all through by the time the baby is twelve
months old, and are often through at ten months. Then there is a pause
of from one to three months before the next teeth appear--the four
anterior molars. As these four anterior molars come in, the two
lateral incisors appear on the lower jaw, which now gives us, by the
time the baby is fourteen or fifteen months old, four central teeth
upper, four central teeth lower, and the four anterior molars, which
make twelve teeth.

Another pause of two or three months and then we get the four canine,
which fill in the space between the first molars and the front teeth.
The canine on the upper jaw are commonly known as the eye teeth, while
the canine teeth on the lower jaw are spoken of as the stomach teeth.
This brings us to the age of eighteen to twenty-four months, when
there is still another pause of two or three months, after which time
the big teeth or the four posterior molars appear, which completes the
first set of twenty teeth--the milk teeth. When baby is twenty months
old the milk teeth are often all in. The complete set should appear
not later than the thirtieth month.

During the life of the milk teeth the child should be taken to the
dentist at least once a year, better once in six months, for all
defective teeth must be properly and promptly cared for. Inexpensive
but sanitary fillings should be placed in all decayed teeth, for the
roots of the first teeth are very soft and infection readily spreads
to the jaws and the permanent teeth and serious trouble often begins
thus early.

If dentition is seriously delayed, investigation should be started
concerning the general condition of the child, for this delay often
accompanies ill health.

When the child is six years old, the mother should be watchful, for it
is at this time that the first permanent teeth appear just behind the
last molar of the milk teeth. They do not replace any of the teeth
present, and many times they come through and decay without receiving
any attention. It is seldom necessary to assist these milk teeth as
they come through the gum, and should the gums become highly colored
and swollen it is not wise to lance them, for if the teeth are not
ready to come through immediately, the gum only toughens the more and
makes the real cutting still more painful.

This is the time to cut down the baby's food as well as to look for
other digestive disturbances, for the number of stools may increase
and vomiting may occur, and by reducing the quantity and quality of
the food and encouraging abundant water drinking, much trouble may be
avoided. Under no circumstances urge the baby to eat when he refuses
his food, when the gums seem swollen and red during the teething time.
You will find that he will enjoy orange juice, pineapple juice, or
prune juice. All of these digestive symptoms are simply the result of
"feeling bad," and if heavy food of his regular feeding is greatly
diminished he will get along much better than if fed his regular
allowance of food.


APPEARANCE OF THE TEETH

The normal child has:

Six teeth at one year.
Twelve teeth at one and one-half years.
Sixteen teeth at two years.
Twenty teeth at two and one-half years.

When the child is six years old the first permanent tooth appears just
back of the last of the milk teeth. By the time he is seven, the four
central teeth, two above and two below, are out and the new ones begin
to appear. The order of their appearances is as follows:

Four first molars 6 years
Four central incisors 7 years
Four lateral incisors 8 years
Four first bicuspids 9 to 10 years
Four second bicuspids 10 to 11 years
Four canines 11 to 13 years
Four second molars 12 to 15 years
Four third molars 17 to 25 years


DENTAL SUGGESTIONS

A better plan than to lance swollen gums is to rub them gently with
ice wrapped in a soft cloth, or to dip the finger in ice water and rub
the gums--this often gives the baby much relief.

Often the baby finds comfort in biting on an ivory ring, but the
utmost care must be used in keeping it clean and avoiding
contamination by allowing it to drop on the floor.

Convulsions are never the symptoms of teething. Consult a physician at
once, as such seizures probably spring from causes other than
teething.

Cleansing of the teeth should be carried out systematically every
morning by means of a piece of cotton which has been dipped in a
boric-acid solution or a solution of bicarbonate of soda (common
baking soda). A soft brush may be used for cleansing, and when there
are particles of food between the teeth they should be removed by
strands of waxed floss.

Throughout life, frequent visits should be made to the dentist; during
early childhood days he should be on the lookout for symptoms which
indicate deformity--narrow jaws and other conditions which affect the
permanent teeth. During adolescence and adult life the teeth should be
examined every six months and cleansings of the mouth should become a
part of the daily toilet.


THE WEIGHT

During the first year, nothing gives us so much information concerning
the child's general well-being as the weight. Such a record will not
only enlighten the mother concerning the development of the child, but
the grown-up child appreciates the record and preserves it along with
the other archives of babyhood days. Every Sunday morning, when the
father is at home, the baby should be weighed and an accurate record
kept. It is important that the baby be weighed each time in the same
garments--shirt, band, diaper, and stockings--for every ounce must be
accounted for.

Until the baby is five or six months old he should gain from four to
eight ounces a week. Anything short of this is not enough and should
be reported to the physician. After six months the gain is about a
pound each month. This varies somewhat; possibly during the tenth and
eleventh month the gain is lessened, but by the close of the first
year the baby should have trebled its birth weight.

Dr. Griffith gives us the following very interesting bit of
information concerning the weight of boys and girls after the first
year, and to him also belongs the credit for the accompanying table
showing the growth, height, and weight of the child up to sixteen
years of age.

After the first year we notice that, taking it all together,
there is a gradual increase in the number of pounds and a
decrease in the number of inches added yearly, four inches being
gained in both the second and third years, three inches in the
fourth and fifth years, and after this two inches a year. The
gain in weight is four pounds yearly from the age of three to
that of seven years, then five, then six, and then about nine
pounds. It sometimes happens that at about the age of nine in
girls and eleven in boys there is almost a cessation of growth
for a short time. Later, at about twelve years, girls take on a
particularly rapid growth, and decidedly exceed boys of the same
age in weight, and sometimes in height also. At fifteen or
sixteen years the rapidity of growth in girls, both in weight and
height, will be greatly diminished, while boys of this age will
often begin to develop very rapidly, and will soon materially
exceed the other sex in both respects.

TABLE SHOWING GROWTH IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT

Age. Height. Weight.

Birth 19 inches. 7 lbs. 8 oz.
1 week 7 " 71/2 "

2 weeks 7 " 101/2 " } Gained 1 oz.
3 weeks 8 " 2 " } a day;
1 month 201/2 inches 83/4 " } 7 oz. a week
2 months 21 " 103/4 " }

3 months 22 " 121/4 " } {Gained 3/4 oz. a day;
4 months 23 " 133/4 " } {5-1/2 oz. a week.

5 months 231/2 " 15 " } {Double original weight.
6 months 24 " 161/4 " } {Gained 2/3 oz. a day;
{4-2/3 oz. a week.
{
7 months 241/2 " 171/4 " } {
8 months 25 " 181/4 " } {Gained 1/2 in. a month.
9 months 251/2 " 183/4 " } {
10 months 26 " 193/4 " } {Gained about 1 lb. a month.
11 months 261/2 " 201/2 " } {
1 year 27 " 211/2 " } {Treble original weight.

2 years 31 " 27 " } {
3 years 35 " 32 " } {Gain 4 in. a year.

4 years 371/2 " 36 " } Double original length.
5 years 40 " 40 " } {Gained 3 in. and 4 lbs.
} {a year.

6 years 43 " 44 " } {Gained 2 in and 4 lbs.
7 years 45 " 48 " } {a year.

8 years 47 " 53 " } {Gained 2 in. and 5 lbs.
9 years 49 " 58 " } {a year.

10 years 51 " 64 " } {Gained 2 in. and 6 lbs.
11 years 53 " 70 " } {a year.

12 years 55 " 79 " }
13 years 57 " 88 " }
14 years 59 " 100 " } {Gained 2 inches and
15 years 61 " 109 " } {about 9 lbs. a year.
16 years 63 " 117 " }


GENERAL DEVELOPMENT

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 14), taken from Dr. Yale,
represents the developmental changes at one, five, nine, thirteen,
seventeen, and twenty-one years. Each figure is divided into four
equal parts, and as we watch the development from the baby who at one
year, as Dr. Yale says, is four heads high, at the age of twenty-one
the legs and the trunk have much outgrown the growth of the head, so
that at this age the head is only two-thirteenths or less of the whole
length of the body. The legs have grown more rapidly and equal
one-half the entire body length. The trunk has not kept pace with the
legs, for as you will see from the diagram the line reaches the navel
of the child in one year, while in the adult it is much lower. The
rapid growth of the legs is accomplished after nine years of age.

[Illustration: Fig. 14. Developmental Changes]

The proportions of the head, chest, and abdomen are exceedingly
important in the growing child. At the end of the first year the head,
chest, and abdomen are about uniform in circumference. The head may
measure one-fourth of an inch more, but the chest and abdomen should
both measure eighteen inches in circumference at this time. Should
the head or the abdomen be two inches larger than the chest; the
attention of the physician should be called to it, for either are
indicative of conditions that should be carefully investigated.

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