Sir James George Frazer - "The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead, Volume I (of 3)"

Amanda Minnie Douglas - "A Little Girl in Old Detroit"

Sir Rabindranath Tagore - "Glimpses of Bengal"

Giuseppe Garibaldi - "Clelia"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child




During the balmy days of summer and early autumn, baby may spend most
of the time outdoors between seven in the morning and sunset. During
the cooler days of winter and the cool and windy days of spring, the
best hours for the airing are to be found between eleven in the
morning and three in the afternoon.

At six weeks, perhaps an hour a day in the fresh air is sufficient;
while at six months, four to six hours a day are a necessity, and from
then on--the more the better.

Now we realize that the mother of the farm household does not always
have as much time to take the baby out for his airings as many of our
city mothers; but we suggest to this busy mother that the baby be
rolled out on the porch or in the yard, within her sight and hearing,
and allowed to enjoy the fresh air while the mother continues her
work.

It is virtually a crime to try to keep baby in the kitchen, hour after
hour, while the busy mother is engaged at her tasks. A hammock, a crib
on casters, or a carriage, is just the coziest place in the world for
baby--out on the porch.


THE COUNTRY BABY

The average city baby really gets more fresh air than ninety per cent
of the country babies. Our city apartments are usually steam heated,
and our windows are open in the winter nearly as much as in the
summer. The country home is often only partially heated by two or
three stoves. The windows are closed in summer to keep out the dust,
heat, and flies, in the winter to shut out the cold, and so the baby
who lives in such a home has little chance to get fresh air.

The city mother is constantly talked to about the benefits of fresh
air. The daily paper brings its health column to her, her pastor talks
of it on Sunday, and--best of all--the older children come home from
school and reiterate the doctrine of fresh air that is constantly
being preached to them at school.

Screen the windows, rural mother, and oil the roads in front of your
residence, and then keep your windows open. Remember that baby's
health is of more value than the meadow lot or even a fortune later on
in life. Plan for a new heating plant, if necessary, so that the home
can be both warmed and ventilated during the winter.


WHEN NOT TO TAKE BABY OUT

If a sheltered corner of the porch is within the reach of the mother,
we can hardly think of a time when the baby cannot be taken out. It
may rain, the wind may blow, it may snow or even hail, but baby lies
in his snug little bed with a hot water bottle or a warmed soapstone
at his feet. As long as the finger tips are warm, we may know he is
warm all over, and a long nap is thus enjoyed in the cool fresh air.
When the sheltered corner of the porch is lacking, we wish to caution
the mother concerning the following weather conditions:

1. When the weather is excessively hot, take him out only in the early
morning and late in the afternoon.

2. In extremely cold, below zero, weather, let his airing be indoors.

3. Sharp and cold winds may do much mischief to baby's ears, as well
as blow much mischief-making dust into his nose and eyes. In the case
of dust or sand storms, baby remains in the house.

4. All little people enjoy the rain, and only when the raincoat,
rubbers, and umbrella are missing should they be robbed of the
"rainy-day fun". In the case of baby's outing on rainy days, ample
roof protection is the only factor to be considered; if it is
adequate, then take him out; if it is lacking, let the airing be done
indoors.


WINTER OUTINGS

The very young baby is taken out for a fifteen-minute airing during
the noon hour when he is two months old; before this time he receives
his airing indoors. The interval is gradually lengthened until most of
the time between eleven and three is spent out of doors. The reddened
cheeks, the increased appetite, all tell the story of the invigorating
benefits of cool, fresh air. Most babies dislike heavy veils, and they
may be avoided by a fold of the blanket arranged as a protection
shield from the wind.

The wind shield, procurable wherever baby carriages are sold, should
be a part of the outdoor equipment, as it greatly helps in the
protection of the baby.

The wind should never blow in his face; neither should he lie,
unprotected, asleep or awake to gaze up into the sunshine or the
sky--or even at a white lining of the hood of his carriage. The lining
should be a shade of green, preferably dark green. And while it may be
necessary during the summer to suspend a netting over the carriage to
protect from flies, mosquitoes, etc., it should never lie on his face.


OPEN WINDOWS

Many of our readers recall with sadness of heart a little hunchback
child or a life-long invalid confined to a bed or wheel chair because
some careless but well-meaning caretaker or mother left an open window
unguarded; and--in an unlooked for moment--baby crawled too near,
leaned out too far, and fell to the ground. The little fellow was
picked up crippled for life; and so while it is very essential to
baby's health to have open windows, admitting fresh air, they should
be amply guarded. Screens afford protection if well fastened, and in
their absence a slat three inches wide and one inch thick may be
securely fastened across the opening, thus preventing all such
tragedies with their life-long regrets.


SLEEP

If any of our readers have seen a new-born baby immediately after he
has been washed, dressed, and comfortably warmed, they have observed
that he usually goes to sleep at once, and that he generally sleeps
from four to six hours. Babies, especially new-born babies, need just
four things: warmth, food, water, and sleep.

And while the babies sleep they are not to be disturbed by the fond
mother's caresses and cuddling--feeling of the tiny hands, smoothing
out the soft cheek, or stroking his silky hair--for all such mothers
are truly sowing for future trouble. Let baby absolutely alone while
sleeping, and let this rule be maintained even if some important guest
must be disappointed. If such cannot wait till baby wakens, then he
must be content with the mental picture drawn from the mother's vivid
description of baby--his first smile, his first tooth, his first
recognition of the light, etc. The wise mother cat never disturbs her
sleeping kittens.


SLEEP REQUIREMENTS

Sleeping, eating, and growing occupy the whole time of young babies.
Until they are two months old they need from eighteen to twenty hours
sleep out of each twenty-four; and not less than sixteen hours up to
the end of the first year.

At six months, baby should sleep right through the night from six in
the evening until six in the morning, with a ten o'clock feed, which
should be given quietly, in a darkened room, the babe being
immediately returned to his bed.

At two or three years of age, twelve to fourteen hours of sleep is
required; while at four to five years, eleven to twelve hours are
needed; when they attain the age of thirteen years they should still
have ten hours of unbroken sleep each night.

As a general rule, children should sleep alone; even in the case of
two brothers or two sisters, separate beds are far better than a
double bed for both hygienic and moral reasons.

Baby should have a separate bed. The temptation to nurse him on the
least provocation, as well as the danger of overlying, are reasons
enough for such an arrangement.


PUTTING BABY TO SLEEP

At five-thirty in the afternoon, baby should be undressed, rubbed or
bathed, made perfectly comfortable, and fed; then, my mother reader,
he should be laid down in his little bed and allowed to go to sleep,
without any coaxing, singing, rocking, or even holding his hand.
Babies will do this very thing and continue to do it if you never
begin to rock, jolt, bounce, or sing to them; and, mind you, if you do
sing to them or rock them, or even sit near without doing anything but
"just hold their tiny hands," there will come a time when you greatly
desire to do something else--you have many urgent duties awaiting
you--and baby not being old enough to understand the circumstances,
begins to wail out his feeling of neglect and abuse. It is nothing
short of wicked thus to spoil a child.

We have seen so many beautiful babies go to sleep by themselves
without any patting, dangling, or rocking, that we encourage and urge
every mother to begin right, for if the little one never knows
anything about rocking and pattings he will never miss them; and even
if the baby is spoiled through extra attention which sickness often
makes necessary, then at the first observance of the tendency on the
part of the child to insist on the rocking, or the presence of a light
in the sleeping-room, or the craving for a pacifier, we most strongly
urge the mothers to stick to the heroic work of "letting him cry it
out."

The notion that the household must move about on tiptoes is not only
unnecessary but perfectly ridiculous. From the very hour of his birth,
let the child become accustomed to the ordinary noises of the home,
and if this plan is early started he will prove a blessing and a ray
of sunshine to the family and not an autocrat to whom all must bow and
bend the knee.


BEDTIME AND SLEEPING POSITION

Bedtime is regulated somewhat by the hour of rising in the morning.
Usually, up to two years, baby is put to bed from five to six P. M.
Regularity is urged in maintaining the bedtime hour.

The seven o'clock bedtime hour is later established and continued
until the young child attains school age, when retiring at the curfew
hour of eight o'clock gives our boy or girl from ten to eleven hours
of sleep, which is essential to proper growth, calm nerves, and an
unruffled temper.

The first few days finds our little fellow sleeping nine-tenths of his
time. Let him lie on his right side, for this favors the complete
closure of the fetal heart valve, the foramen ovale.

Whether baby lies on his stomach, his side, or with the hands over his
head is of little or no consequence. His position should be changed
first from one side to the other until he is old enough to turn
himself.


WAKING UP AT NIGHT

Before baby is three months old, he should receive nourishment during
the night at nine and twelve, and again at six in the morning. After
four or five months a healthy child should not be fed between the
hours of ten P. M. and six A. M. At this age, many children sleep
right through from six P. M. to six A. M. without food.

After five months, if a healthy baby awakens between ten P. M. and six
A. M. warm water may be given from a bottle; he soon forgets about
this and the night's sleep becomes unbroken. There are many other
reasons than the need of food that cause the wakefulness of the child;
and since the baby should, after a few months, sleep undisturbed and
peacefully, if he is wakeful and restless--crying out in a peevish
whine--and then quiets down for a few moments only to cry out again,
you may suspect one of a half-dozen different things. Let us,
therefore, summarize the things which may disturb baby's sleep:

1. _Lack of Fresh Air._ Babies cannot sleep peacefully in a hot,
stuffy room, or in a room filled with the fumes of an oil lamp turned
low. A crying fretful baby often quiets down as if by magic, providing
he is not hungry and the diaper is dry, when taken into a cool room
with fresh air. After the first two months the temperature of the
sleeping room should be fairly cool and fresh.

2. _Clothes and Bedding._ The night clothes may be irritating and
causing perspiration, while the bedding may be wrapped too snugly
about the child. If baby's neck is warm and moist, you may know that
he is too warm. If the diaper is wet it should be changed at once. One
of the worst habits a baby can possibly get into is to become so
accustomed to a wet diaper that it does not annoy him. In cold
weather he is changed under the bed clothing without exposure or
chilling. It may be the bedding is cold and, if so, it should be
warmed up by the use of the photophore previously described, or by
means of the flannel-covered hot water bottle.

3. _The Food._ Too little, too much, or the wrong kind of food, will
disturb baby's sleep. Indigestion is very easily produced in babies
who are improperly fed. For instance, the mother's milk may be lacking
in nourishment and baby may really be hungry; or, as in the case of a
bottle-fed baby, it is usually due to over feeding. Many mothers we
have known who sleep with their babies or who sleep very near them,
nurse them every time they wake up or murmur, and this soon becomes
one of the biggest causes of disturbed sleep.

4. _Spoiling._ A lighted nursery or bedroom, rocking to sleep, jolting
the carriage over a door sill or up and down, the habit of picking
baby up the moment he cries, late rompings--any and all of these may
disturb sleep, as well as unsettle the tender nervous system of the
child, thus laying the foundation for future nervousness,
neurasthenia, and possibly hysteria. This is particularly true in the
case of the children who have nervous parents.

5. _Reflex Causes._ Wakefulness is sometimes due to reflex nervous
causes such as the need for circumcision, or the presence of adenoids,
enlarged tonsils or worms. Does baby have to breathe through his
mouth? Then you may suspect adenoids or other conditions which should
be removed.

6. _Chronic Disorders._ The presence of scurvy or syphilis causes the
child to cry out sharply as if in acute pain, while in older children
tuberculosis of the spine or hip is attended by a sharp, painful
crying out during sleep. Malnutrition or anemia are also conditions
which greatly disturb sleep.

7. _Soothing Syrups._ Untold trouble, both physical and nervous, is
bound to follow the giving of soothing syrups. These medicines soothe
by knocking the nerves senseless and never by removing the cause. They
contain morphin, opium, cocain, heroin, and other drugs which deaden
pain, and are most dangerous to give baby.


DAILY NAPS

The morning nap from the sixth month on should be from two to three
hours long, out on the porch, well protected; while the afternoon nap
may be from one to one and a half hours long with an interval of two
or three hours before bedtime. The child should be wakened at regular
intervals for feedings during the day--every three hours until he is
six months old, and then every four hours. These naps should be taken
in a cool place--on the porch, on the roof, in the yard, under a tree,
or on the protected fire escape.

If the nap is to be taken indoors, then lower the windows from the top
and darken the room. All children should take daily naps until they
are five or six years old.




CHAPTER XXIII

BABY HYGIENE


Possibly if all our babies could grow up in a mild, warm climate, out
of doors, where they were cared for by mothers who had nothing else to
do but enjoy nature in a garden, their babies unhampered by clothes
and other conventionalities inflicted upon us by our present standards
of living--well, if that were our environment, probably this chapter
on baby hygiene would not need to be written. But realizing that
variable climatic conditions, the indoor life, and the necessary
bundling up with clothes, all tend to increase the ever-present danger
of infection from thickly settled peoples and their domestic
pets--these facts, together with the further fact that modern social
conditions make it necessary for some mothers to toil long hours--all
these influences, I say, considered separately or combined, make it
imperative for us to give thoroughgoing consideration to the
essentials of baby hygiene. The subjects of fresh air, sleep, bathing,
etc., have been duly discussed in previous chapters.


WATER DRINKING

As soon as the newborn baby has been washed and dressed, before he is
put to sleep, he is given two teaspoons of warm, boiled water in a
sterile bottle with a clean nipple. This is repeated every two hours
when he is awake, until he is old enough to ask for water himself.
This water should contain no sugar, or anything else--just clean,
boiled water. It is better to give this water from a bottle; for in
case of enforced weaning, this practice of taking his water from a
bottle, will have made him acquainted with that method of feeding.


URINATION

The baby may pass very little urine during the first day or two of his
life, but if the warm, boiled water is administered regularly, the
urine will soon become more abundant.

As the child nears two years of age, if put to bed at six P. M. he
should be taken up at ten or eleven to urinate.

In older children, bed wetting is often corrected by serving the last
meal not later than four P. M. and not allowing any liquids after that
hour.

The physician should be consulted in all instances where the habit of
bed wetting extends beyond three years. The subject will be treated
more fully in a later chapter.


EXERCISE

A baby pen, lifted up from the floor, well protected at the sides, and
covered with mosquito bar--if exposed to flies or mosquitoes--affords
splendid opportunity for exercise. Here the little fellow may lay on a
well-padded mattress and kick, move his arms, and otherwise roll about
to his own satisfaction. It should not be in the direct sunshine, but
rather in a protected, somewhat shady place, yet where the air is pure
and fresh.

Much exercise is obtained from the daily cry. Here, the arms, legs,
hands and feet, as well as the body, are all exercised until the baby
is pink. A good rebound of blood is flowing through the well-warmed
skin, while the baby is greatly benefited by such daily exercise.

Later on, "creeping" is urged, but not forced. With regard to
standing--he will pull himself up on his feet just as soon as nature
qualifies him, and so he needs no urging or coaxing in this matter.
Older children should be encouraged in active romping, games, etc.,
rather than to spend the entire day in the more sedentary amusements,
puzzle pictures, etc.

It is a most abnormal situation when a three-, or four-year-old child
is content to sit quietly all day. There is usually something
seriously wrong with a child who never soils his rompers, who never
makes a noise, and who does not seem to enjoy normal play and fun.

Let the little folks early learn that the home is theirs to enjoy and
that their little friends are welcome; and thus you may be spared such
a reproof as one little lad of four unknowingly gave his mamma. His
little friend was approaching the stairs of the play room, when the
thoughtless mother carelessly and impatiently remarked: "Oh, are you
going to bring Ned upstairs? you'll make so much noise." The little
host met his friend at the top with the words: "They don't want boys
in the house, we'd better go outdoors." The mother "woke up" and
arranged a little "party" upstairs for the two husky, healthy--and
noisy--boys.

During the creeping days remember that the floor is the coolest part
of the room, and in the absence of the creeping pen, which is "built
up" two feet above the floor, extra clothing should be put upon the
child while on the floor. During the damp days of early spring and the
cool days of late fall, as well as on the bleak days of winter, baby
is better off if he is kept off the floor. It is a fine plan to put a
number of table boards on top of the springs of the baby's bed; in
this way a sort of pen is produced which is high above the cold floor
and the baby is content to spend much of his time in this little pen,
happy with his playthings.


KISSING THE BABY

We most strongly protest against the haphazard, promiscuous kissing of
babies. Many forms of disease, such as tuberculosis, syphilis,
diphtheria, influenza, common colds, etc., may be carried to the child
in this way.

The baby, notwithstanding his attractiveness, his beauty, and his
grace, should not be overfondled. Kissing the hand is not much better
than the mouth, for the hand quickly finds its way to the mouth. If it
be necessary to kiss a baby, then let the kissing be done on the back
of the neck or on top of his head, but never on the face or hand.


SUCKLING HABITS

There came into the office one day a woman forty or more years of age,
whose mouth was markedly disfigured, and on my inquiring as to the
probable cause she said: "Doctor, it is the result of sucking my thumb
when I was a mere child, too young to know better, and every time I
look into the glass, which I assure you is only when I am compelled
to, I curse my parents for not breaking me of that habit." The
indulgent parents were hated and despised for neglecting their duty,
because of the disfigurement which resulted from this unrestrained
habit of early childhood.

Thumb sucking, finger sucking, or pacifier sucking, are all filthy
habits, and should be early discouraged. To aid in overcoming the
habit of sucking the thumb or biting the fingernails, the ends of the
fingers and edges of the nails may be painted with a solution of aloes
or quinine. In extreme cases, a splint may be placed on the anterior
bend of the elbow, thus preventing the possibility of raising the hand
to the mouth.

The "sugar teat" of our mother's generation has passed, as has also
the "mumbling" of food for the young child; we no longer give the
babies concentrated sugar, nor do we "chew" our children's food at the
table.

Extreme cases of chalk or dirt eating have been noted; such tendencies
are decidedly abnormal, and require medical attention.


KEEP BABY WARM

Much colic and fretfulness may be avoided if baby is kept warm. The
finger tips are a good thermometer, for if they are warm the feet
usually are. "Bundling" is unnecessary, but careful attention should
be paid to keeping the feet and hands warm without making the child
sweat; that is an art, and all mothers should attain it. An extra
flannel wrapper and a pair of heavy wool booties in the winter are
good warmth producers. Cotton flannel petticoats should be replaced by
warm woolen ones, and when the baby begins to get about on his hands
and knees a pair of loosely fitting wool tights, made from discarded
woolen underwear are of inestimable comfort and value. In the effort
to avoid draughts and body chilling, ever bear in mind baby's need of
fresh air and the dangers of sweating, for the sudden cooling of a
sweating child is a forerunner of pneumonia, cold catching, diarrhoea,
and other troubles.


BABY'S TEMPERATURE

During early infancy, baby's temperature sometimes varies greatly; for
instance, a rectal temperature may register 97.5 or 100.5 F. while the
child may be in perfectly good health.

The baby's temperature should be taken at the rectum--which should
normally register 99.5 F. This temperature, as stated above, may
register 100.5 F., with no other symptoms of illness. In taking rectal
temperature the thermometer should remain in place two minutes.

The groin is the next best place to take the temperature; here the
thermometer should remain five minutes, and the registry is usually a
degree lower than that of the rectum.

The baby's temperature usually is a good guide to the severity of any
illness. In case the temperature runs above 101 F. the physician
should always be notified and his orders carefully followed. Slight
causes often produce a high temperature of 103 to 105 F. for a short
time; but such a temperature of long duration means serious trouble
and demands expert advice and attention. Abnormal temperature will be
more fully considered in that section of this work entitled "Common
Disorders of Infancy."


BABY BOUNCING

The common custom of bouncing or trotting baby on the knee is a
harmful one. The young and growing nervous system of the child is
decidedly injured by this constant jolting and jiggling, to say
nothing of the "spoiling" effects of this practice. There is a vast
difference between the sensitive nervous system of the infant, with
its liability to shock and disturbances, and that of the settled and
developed nervous system of an adult. The strength of the mother or
nurse is so great that the jarring not only often causes indigestion
and vomiting in the infant, but sometimes also lays the foundation for
"wrecked nerves" in later life.

The tossing of baby in the air comes in for the same condemnation.
Baby is not "our plaything," and must not be bounced and tossed about
like a rubber ball.


CARRIAGES AND GO-CARTS

The first carriage should be roomy and comfortable. The bed should be
thirty-three inches long and fourteen inches wide, and should be
twenty-eight or thirty inches from the floor. The wheels should be
rubber tired. The cover should be a good sized hood containing a dark
lining, and provided with a wind shield. This dark lining creates a
neutral shade for the eyes and protects them from the glare of the sun
and the bright skies.

The bed of the carriage should be soft and warm; and, with the size
before mentioned, there is ample room for the "tucking in" with warm
blankets, which are first spread out on the bed and then the baby
placed into the blanket, after which it is brought up and over him.

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