Desiderius Erasmus - "The Praise of Folly"

M. E. Braddon - "The Golden Calf"

Theodor Storm - "Bulemanns Haus"

Various - "Atlantic Monthly, Vol. IV, No. 26, December, 1859"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child




The fact that so many babies do so well on such unscientific feeding
only serves to demonstrate the old law of "the survival of the
fittest"--they are born in the world with an enormous endowment of
"survival qualities"--and in many cases the little fellows thrive and
grow no matter how atrociously they are fed.

There may be other factors in the explanation of why some babies do so
well on such poor care, but heredity is the chief explanation, while
adaptation is the other. If the little fellows can survive for a few
weeks or a few months, the human machine possesses marvelous powers of
adaptation, and we find here the explanation why many a neglected baby
pulls through.


INFANT FOODS

Rickets and scurvy have so often followed the prolonged use of the
so-called "infant foods" which have flooded the market for the past
decade, that intelligent physicians unanimously agree that they are
injurious and quite unfit for continued use in the feeding of infants.
If they are prescribed to replace milk during an acute illness, or at
other times when the fats and proteins should be withheld for a short
period, both the physician and the mother should be in the possession
of definite and exact knowledge as to just what they do and do not
contain. To provide such knowledge, we present the analysis (Holt) of
some of the more commonly used infant foods.

1. _The Milk Foods._ Nestle's Food is perhaps the most widely known.
The others closely resembling it in composition are the Anglo-Swiss,
the Franco-Swiss, the American-Swiss, and Gerber's Food. These foods
are essentially sweetened, condensed milk evaporated to dryness, with
the addition of some form of flour which has been dextrinized; they
all contain a large proportion of unchanged starch.

2. _The Liebig or Malted Foods._ Mellin's Food may be taken as a type
of the class. Others which resemble it more or less closely are
Liebig's, Horlick's Food, Hawley's Food, malted milk, and cereal milk.
Mellin's food is composed principally (eighty per cent) of soluble
carbohydrates. They are derived from malted wheat and barley flour,
and are composed chiefly of a mixture of dextrins, dextrose, and
maltose.

3. _The Farinaceous Foods._ These are Imperial Granum, Ridge's Food,
Hubbell's Prepared Wheat, and Robinson's Patent Barley. The first
consists of wheat flour previously prepared by baking, by which a
small proportion of the starch--from one to six per cent--has been
converted into sugar.

In chemical composition these four foods are very similar to each
other, consisting mainly of unchanged starch which forms from
seventy-five to eighty per cent of their solid constituents.

4. _Miscellaneous Foods._ Under this head may be mentioned Carnrick's
Soluble Food and Eskay's Food.

The composition of the foods mentioned is given in the accompanying
table.

COMPOSITION OF INFANT FOODS

Malted
Nestle's Mellin's Eskay's Milk
Ingredients Food Food Food (Horlick's)
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent

Fat 5.50 0.24 1.16 8.78
Proteins 14.34 11.50 5.82 16.35
Cane Sugar 25.00 ... ... ...
Dextrose ... ... } 53.46[1] ...
Lactose (milk sugar) 6.57 ... } } 49.15[2]
Maltose } 27.36 60.80 ... }
Dextrins } 19.20 14.35 18.80
Carbohydrates (soluble) 58.93 80.00 67.81 67.95
Starch 15.39 ... 21.21 ...
Inorganic Salts 2.03 3.59 1.30 3.86
Water 3.81 4.73 2.70 3.06


Ridge's Imperial Carnrick's
Ingredients Food Granum Food
Per cent Per cent Per cent

Fat 1.11 1.04 7.45
Proteins 11.81 14.00 10.25
Cane Sugar ... ... ...
Dextrose 0.52 0.42 ...
Lactose (milk sugar) ... ...
Maltose ... ...
Dextrins 1.28 1.38 ...
Carbohydrates (soluble) 1.80 1.80 27.08
Starch 76.21 73.54 37.37
Inorganic Salts 0.49 0.39 4.42
Water 8.58 9.23 3.42

[1] Chiefly Lactose.

[2] Largely Maltose.




CHAPTER XX

BABY'S BATH AND TOILET


From earliest girlhood, women have loved their dolls, and one of the
greatest joys connected with the adored experience was the
make-believe bath and the dressing of the make-believe baby; so now,
when we are the happy possessors of real live dolls, we should go
about the task with the same lightheartedness of a score of years ago
when we hugged, kissed, bathed, and dressed our dolls. There is one
big advantage now, the doll won't break; but, we sigh as we stop to
think, we can't stick pins into it as we all did into the sawdust
bodies of our dolls those years and years ago.


THE FIRST WEEK

In the chapter on "Baby's Early Care," this subject was fully
discussed and we only wish to repeat, in passing, that before baby's
bath or toilet is undertaken the hands of the mother, nurse, or
caretaker must be scrupulously clean. And while the first day's bath
usually consists of sweet oil, albolene, or benzoated lard, if the new
baby happens to come during the very warm days of July or August and
the oil seems to irritate the soft downy skin, as it often does during
those hot days, a simple sponge bath may be substituted. The cord
dressing remains as the doctor left it, and if there be any
interference, let it be subject to his orders.

The cord usually drops off, and the abdomen is entirely healed by the
seventh to the tenth day, after which time baby is daily sponged for
another week. And now we will describe in detail the simplest, easiest
manner of administering an oil bath or a sponge bath.


GIVING THE BATH

A large pillow or a folded soft comfort is placed on a table in a warm
room--temperature not below 75 F. On baby's tray near by, and within
reaching distance, are the boracic acid solution in a small cup, a
medicine dropper, the warm saucer of oil, the toothpick applicators
(made by twisting cotton about one end, making sure the sharp end of
the pick is well protected), a glass jar of small cotton balls made
from sterile absorbent cotton, the castile soap, talcum powder, needle
and thread. A vessel of warm water, several old, soft, warmed towels
and the clean garments required, complete the layout.

Into the warm, soft blanket on the pillow or comfort we place the
partially undressed baby, for the binder, diaper, and socks are not
removed until the head-and-face toilet is completed.

The top of the head, behind the ears, the folds of the neck, and the
armpits are now gently but thoroughly rubbed with oil, which is then
all rubbed off with a soft linen towel. The eyes next receive two or
three drops of the boracic acid solution, put in by the aid of the
medicine dropper, while, with a separate piece of cotton, the surplus
solution is wiped off each eye, rubbing from the nose outward.

Then with the applicator made by wrapping cotton about the end of a
toothpick, oil is put into each nostril, all the time exercising the
utmost care not to harm the tender mucous membrane. The ears are also
carefully cleansed with a squeezed-out dip of boracic acid on the
applicator.

Unless there is an inflammation present in the mouth, and the
physician in attendance has ordered mouth swabbing, do not touch it;
for much harm is done the mucous membrane of the baby's mouth by the
forceful manner in which much of the swabbing is done. The face and
head are then washed with warm water; very little soap is needed and,
when used, must be most thoroughly rinsed off.


THE SECOND WEEK

And now during the second week, we proceed to sponge the baby's body;
the hands are washed with soap and rinsed, and, only those who have
performed this feat know just how tightly they hold shut their little
fists. These hands must be relaxed, and all the lint, dirt, and
perspiration be thoroughly washed away. The arms, shoulders, chest,
and back are then sponged. All the time the nurse or caretaker is
standing while carrying out this most pleasant task. At any time she
may quickly cover the babe and stop for this or that with no
inconvenience to herself or the child.

After the thorough drying of baby's upper body, a bit of talcum is put
under the arms, in the folds of neck, etc., and the shirt is slipped
on. Next the band, diaper, and stockings are removed and after first
oiling the groin and the folds of the thighs and the buttocks, the
same sponging, drying, and powdering is done here as on the upper
body.

The band is now applied, and _sewed on_. The diaper, stockings,
booties, and--if a winter baby--the skirt and outing flannel gown (for
babies should wear only night dresses for the first two or three
weeks) are now slipped over the feet and drawn upward, and baby is
ready for nursing or for his nap.


TEMPERATURE OF BATHS

First few weeks, 100 F.; early infancy, 98 F.; after six months, 97
F., cooling down to 90 F.

A wooden bath thermometer may be purchased for twenty-five cents and
it should be in every home where babies are bathed. In the absence of
a thermometer do not depend upon the hand to determine temperature.
Thrust the bared elbow into the water and if it is just
comfortable--neither hot or cool--it is probably about the correct
temperature for baby. Do not shock the baby by dashes of cold water,
for, while it may amuse an onlooker, it unnecessarily frightens your
child, and, subconsciously, he learns to dread his bath.


THE BATHING PLACE

If the bathroom is warm--temperature 75 F.--that is the most logical
place for the bath, provided baby has his own tub. Place a couple of
strong slats several inches wide across the big tub, six inches apart,
and on this place the baby's tub. Of course, care must be exercised
to prevent slipping by means of properly fitted cleats on the under
surface of the slats. The mother should always stand to bathe her baby
and the small tub should be placed at such a height that she neither
has to stoop nor bend. Thus the bathing of the baby becomes a pleasure
instead of a "job" or an "irksome task."

If the bathroom is not warm then the kitchen table or a small table
pulled up near the stove is a place par excellence for the dip.

Many boils seen on young baby's tender skin have been traced to the
careless use of the family tub to bathe the baby in. Not until the
child is two or three years of age, when his skin has become more
toughened, should he be allowed to use the family tub.


FREQUENCY OF BATHS

To begin with, we never bathe either a baby or an adult immediately
after a full meal. From one hour to one and one half hours should
intervene.

The frequency of baths depends somewhat upon the season of the year,
the vitality of the child, and the warmth of the home.

We have seen many infants who were bathed too often. The vitality
expended upon the necessary reaction following a tub bath was too much
for the little fellow; the daily bath was stopped and a semi-weekly
bath substituted, much to the gain of the child. Of course in this
instance the hands, face, and buttocks received a daily sponging.

The oil bath may be administered daily. In robust children the tub
bath may be a daily affair; while in pale, anemic little folks, the
tub bath is perhaps better given twice a week. In hot summer days a
sponge bath may be given many times a day.


BEST HOUR FOR BATHING

Again this depends upon several factors; the warmth of the house or
apartment, the vitality of the child, and the kind of bath to be
administered.

An oil bath may be given any time--often it may be administered
entirely under the bed clothes, only care must be taken to keep oil
from the blankets.

Many of our mothers prefer to give the tub bath at five o'clock in the
afternoon, when the house is thoroughly warm, and the child is thereby
prepared for the long night's sleep. Before dressing in the morning an
oil bath or rub may be given in such cases.

If the forenoon is selected as the time for bathing the child, then an
hour just before the mid forenoon meal is the best. In either event,
be regular about it--do it at the same time every day. Let the
caretaker attend to her many duties, and, as far as possible, mothers,
bathe your baby yourself. The folds of the skin, the creases in the
neck, the clenched fists, must all receive particular care, and no one
in all the world will ever care as you--the mother--cares.


SOAP AND WATER

Select a soap free from irritants and excess of alkalis. There are few
kinds that equal the old-fashioned, white castile soap our
grandmothers used.

Very hard water which makes the skin rough and sore may be improved by
boiling, but if possible substitute rain water for it. A flannel bag
tied over the faucet and changed each day will help to clarify muddy
water, provided the stream flows gently through it.


ROUTINE OF THE TUB BATH

Just as we directed the nurse or caretaker to stand while the oil rub
or sponge bath was given, so we admonish the mother to stand while the
tub bath is given. First, get everything in readiness for the bath as
directed for the oil bath, and then the baby's tub setting on the
securely cleated slats placed across the top of the family tub may be
filled with water by means of a hose attached to the faucet. The
temperature should be 100 F. when baby is dipped in to be rinsed.

The head and face toilet are identical with that described before, and
with the baby undressed and wrapped in a warm towel placed inside
the warm blanket on the pillow or comfort as before mentioned, we
proceed with a good lather of castile soap and water to lather the
baby's body all over--under the arms, the neck, chest, groins, thighs,
buttocks, legs, feet, and between the toes, while the genitals also
receive their share of attention. The foreskin of the boy baby is
gently pushed back and cleansed thoroughly; while the vulva of the
little girl baby, having first been swabbed with boracic acid, is now
gently lathered and cleansed. Now grasp the ankles and legs with the
right hand and support the upper back and neck and shoulders with the
left and gently lower the baby into the water in a semi-reclining
position (See Fig. 13). The water should cover the shoulders. Keep a
good firm supporting left hand under the head, neck, and shoulders,
and with the right, rinse all soap from the body.

[Illustration: Fig. 13. Supporting the Baby for the Bath]

After this is thoroughly done, lift the baby out onto a fresh warm
towel inside the warm blanket on the pillow, and remain standing,
while you gently pat (never rub) the baby dry. All the little folds,
creases, and places between fingers and toes, are carefully patted
_dry_, and where any two skin surfaces rub together put on a bit of
talcum.

The dressing takes place in the manner already described--first the
shirt, then the band (sewed on), the diaper, stockings, skirt, and
gown.

Please note that the soap bath is contra-indicated (should not be
given) in case of eczema.


BABY'S DAILY RUB

This soap bath should be administered for cleanliness only, and should
be given twice a week. If a tub bath is to be given on other days,
after the routine head and face toilet, the baby is simply dipped into
the water and the soft skin gently rubbed.

If the sponge or tub bath is given in the afternoon just before the
long sleep at night, then the oil rub should take place before the
mid-forenoon meal; and likewise, if the sponge or tub bath is given
during the mid forenoon, then the oil rub or dry hand rub is given
before the going-to-bed time. The rub should be a daily procedure for
the first two years. Nothing rougher than the soft palm of the hand
should be rubbed on baby's soft skin.


USE AND ABUSE OF TALCUM

Babies have come to my clinic with _cakes_ of talcum under their arms,
and particularly between their thighs and in the crease of the
buttocks. Here the well-meaning but thoughtless mother had reasoned,
"a little is good; more is better" which is not always the case.

Talcum is not used to replace careful drying, and it should never be
found in quantities on the baby's skin any more than you would expect
to find quantities of face powder caked in the creases of the neck or
behind the ears of an adult. The skin is first cleaned, then patted
entirely dry, and, as a finishing touch, a bit of talcum is put on by
means of a puff.


TONIC AND MEDICATED BATHS

Tonic baths are usually given to older children when they are able to
enter into the sport and frolic of a cool bath. Baths are called tonic
because they call forth from the body a reaction--a sort of
circulatory rebound. This rebound or reaction brings the blood to the
skin, increases the circulation, and tones up the nerves. The room
should be properly warmed and, if necessary, some form of exercise be
continued after the bath to prevent the chill that sometimes follows a
poorly administered bath.

In the case of the anemic child, after six months of age, the mother's
hand dipped in cold water may briskly rub the chest and back until it
glows or becomes red. The child should enjoy this bath. Never frighten
a child by throwing cold water on it or by giving it a too sudden cold
plunge; great harm may be permanently done by these efforts to
"toughen the baby."

The simple medicated baths may be administered according to the
following directions:

_Salt._ Use half a teacup of common salt or sea salt to each gallon of
water. The salt should first be dissolved in a cup of warm water to
prevent the sharp particles from pricking the skin. The doctor
sometimes orders a salt bath.

_Starch._ Add a cup of ordinary, cooked laundry starch for every
gallon of water in the bath.

_Soda._ A soda bath requires two tablespoons of ordinary baking soda
to a gallon of water, dissolving it in a little water before adding it
to the bath.

_Bran._ Make a cotton bag of cheesecloth or other thin material, six
inches square. Fill loosely with bran. Soak the bag in the bath water,
squeezing it frequently until the water becomes milky.

Starch, soda, and bran baths are often used in place of the ordinary
soap and water bath when the skin is inflamed, as in cases of chafing
or prickly heat.


FEAR OF BATHS

Force and harshness are not likely to cause baby to overcome very much
of the fear of a tub bath. Patience, perseverance, and purposeful
diversion of mind will bring sure results.

In the case of a very young baby, have a helper stretch a towel across
the filled baby tub, lay the baby in it, with its head well supported,
and then gently lower the towel into the water, keeping the head out.
(Most anyone would fear an all-over ducking, if he had ever been
completely ducked into water by a careless or mischievous friend).

In the case of older children, celluloid ducks, fish, or boats may
float about on the water, and the entire bath be forgotten by the
little fellow's enjoyment of "his boats."


OUT OF DOOR BATHING

Although a baby under two years should never be given a sea bath,
a word of caution about sea bathing for young children may not be
amiss. The cruelty with which well-meaning parents treat young,
tender children by forcibly dragging them into the surf, a
practice which may be seen at any seaside resort in the summer,
can have no justification. The fright and shock that a sensitive
child is thus subjected to is more than sufficient to undo any
conceivable good resulting from the plunge. On the other hand, a
child who is allowed to play on the warm sand and becomes
accustomed to the water slowly and naturally will soon learn to
take delight in the buffeting of the smaller waves, but he
should not be permitted to remain more than a minute or two in
the water, and should be thoroughly dried, dressed immediately,
and not left to run about the beach in wet clothing.


MILK CRUST

Any roughness on the scalp must receive immediate attention. This
roughness, or milk crust, is entirely avoidable; it is the result of
accumulated oil and dirt. When it has formed a complete crust or cake,
it may quickly become eczematous and require a physician's advice;
however, in the beginning, at the first sight of brown patches or
roughness, oil the scalp thoroughly at night with vaseline or cold
cream, which should be gently rubbed off in the morning.

This vaseline or cold cream should be applied repeatedly, several
nights in succession, followed by the morning's gentle rubbing and
daily washing of the head. Often the washing with water must be
entirely avoided; only sweet oil or vaseline being used in those cases
where the crusting seems to be persistent.


THE EYES, EARS, AND NOSE

At birth the eyes are particularly cared for. First, the mucus is
gently swabbed off the closed lids from the nose side outward, and
then follows the application of one drop of twenty per cent argyrol or
two per cent silver nitrate, either of which thoroughly disinfects the
eye and prevents the growth or development of any bacteria that may
have gotten into the child's eye during the descent of the head
through the birth canal. The neglect of this procedure may sometimes
result in lifelong blindness.

Under no circumstances should "a mere cold in the eyes" be neglected;
it may result in blindness. Call your physician at once, and if he is
not at hand, wash out the eye thoroughly every hour with warmed ten
per cent boracic acid solution, by means of a medicine dropper, using
a separate piece of cotton for each eye, for if the slightest bit of
discharge be carried from one eye to the other an inflammation will
quickly appear.

From birth, especially during the first week, baby's eyes are very
sensitive to light; hence they must be carefully protected. Babies
should be so placed during their outings, sleep, or naps, that they do
not directly gaze at either the sunlight or sky. The lining of the
hood of the carriage should be green, instead of white, as much eye
strain is thus prevented.

The daily care of the normal, well eye has been already described, and
while it need not be reiterated, we may say, in passing, that if the
eyelid be at all inclined to be sticky or adherent, never use force,
but instead, gently swab with boracic acid. As a preventive of this
condition, a little vaseline from the tube may be rubbed on the edges
of the lids at night.

In the toilet of the ears, never attempt to introduce anything beyond
the external ear, which may be carefully cleansed with a soft cloth.
It is often found necessary to apply oil to the creases behind the
ears before the daily bath. There should be no irritation, redness, or
roughness present, all such conditions being readily prevented by the
use of oil or vaseline before the bath.

With the sharp point removed, make a cotton applicator out of a
toothpick, and gently (with no force, whatever) introduce vaseline or
oil into the nose. This should be a part of baby's daily toilet. Any
stoppage of mucus or snuffiness in the nose should be reported at once
to baby's physician. Young babies often have adenoids.


CARE OF THE MOUTH

Leave the well mouth alone until the teeth appear, and then keep the
teeth very clean (allowing no particles of milk to accumulate at their
bases) with a soft bit of cotton and gentle rubbing. When a child
attains the age of two, he should have his own toothbrush; previous to
this time all food particles should be removed from between the teeth
with waxed silk floss. All decay should be promptly attended to by a
competent dentist.

Thrush and ulcers are often caused, not prevented, by the frequent
wiping out of baby's tender mouth. The treatment of thrush and other
mouth infections will be considered in a later chapter, "The Common
Disorders of Infancy."


THE CARE OF THE GENITAL ORGANS

Before the bath, the baby girl's genitals are carefully swabbed
between all the folds with boracic acid solution. The foreskin of the
boy baby should be pushed well back and washed gently with water. If
the foreskin of the male child be long, tight, or adherent,
circumcision is advised. See our chapter, "Teaching Truth."

The genitals of both the boy and girl should be kept scrupulously
clean every day, with as little handling as possible, and, upon the
appearance of the least swelling, discharge, or even redness, the
physician's attention should be at once called to it. In a later
chapter, the subject of irregularities of sex habits will be taken up.

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