Victor Appleton - "Tom Swift And His Photo Telephone"

Norman Duncan - "Doctor Luke of the Labrador"

Arthur Graves Canfield - "French Lyrics"

D. H. Lawrence - "Fantasia of the Unconscious"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Mother and Her Child

W >> William S. Sadler >> The Mother and Her Child





QUANTITY OF FOOD

The quantity of food to be given is always determined by the size of
the baby's stomach, which, of course, depends somewhat upon the age of
the child; for instance, the stomach of the average baby one week old
holds about one ounce, while at the age of three months the stomach
holds five ounces; so it would not only be folly to give two ounces at
one week and seven ounces at three months, but it would also be very
detrimental to the babe, causing severe symptoms due to the
overloading of the stomach.

Careful study of the size of the stomach at different ages in infancy,
together with the quantity of milk drawn from the breast by a nursing
baby, has led to the following conclusions regarding the capacity of
the baby's stomach:

AGE QUANTITY

1--4 weeks 1--2 ounces
4 weeks--3 months 21/2--4 ounces
3 months--6 months 4--6 ounces
6 months--1 year 6--8 ounces


REFRIGERATOR NECESSITY

It is highly important that the day's feedings be kept in a cold
place, free from the odors of other foods as well as free from dust,
flies, and filth. In order that this may be accomplished, the
well-protected bottles, each containing its baby-meal, are placed in a
covered pail containing ice and water. This covered receptacle is now
put in an ice box; and, in order that our most economical reader--one
who may feel that she cannot afford to keep up the daily expense of
the family refrigerator--may herself prepare a simple home
refrigerator, the following directions are given (Fig. 9).


HOMEMADE ICE BOX

Procure a wooden box about eighteen inches square and sixteen or
eighteen inches deep and put four inches of sawdust into the bottom;
now fill in the space between a ten-quart pail, which is set in the
middle of the box with more sawdust. A cover for the box is now lined
with two or three inches of newspaper, well tacked on, and is
fastened to the box by hinges. We are now ready for the inside pail of
ice, into which is carefully placed the well-protected bottles of
milk, all of which is then set into the ten-quart pail in the box.
Five cents worth of ice each day will keep baby's food cool, clean,
and provide protection against the undue growth of germs.

[Illustration: Fig. 9. Homemade Ice Box]


PREPARING THE BOTTLE

At each feeding hour, one of baby's bottled meals is taken from the
ice box and carefully dipped in and out of a deep cup of hot water. A
very convenient receptacle is a deep, quart aluminum cup, which may be
readily carried about. The hot water in the cup should amply cover the
milk in the bottle (Fig. 10).

To test the warmth allow a few drops to fall on the inner side of the
arm, where it should feel quite warm, never hot. A baby's clean woolen
stocking is now drawn over the bottle, which keeps it warm during the
feeding. No matter how great the danger of offending a fond
grandparent or a much adored friend never allow anyone to put the
nipple in her mouth to make the test for warmth of baby's food.

There are many contrivances, both electrical and alcoholic, for
heating baby's bottle, many of which are both convenient and
inexpensive.


POSITION DURING FEEDING

And now we realize that we are about to advise against the
time-honored injunction which has been handed down from "Grandma This"
and "Mother That" to all young mothers who have lived in their
neighborhoods: "My dear young mother, if you can't nurse your precious
infant, you can at least 'mother it' at the nursing time by holding it
in your arms and gently rocking it to and fro as you hold the bottle
to its lips." This so-called "mothering" has resulted in
regurgitation, belching, and numerous other troubles, as well as the
formation of the "rocking habit."

A young mother came running into my office one day saying: "Doctor, it
won't work, the food's all wrong; my baby is not going to live, for
he throws up his food nearly all the time." We arranged to be present
when the next feeding time came and watched the proceedings. A dear
old friend had told her "she must 'mother' her baby at the nursing
time," and so she had held the child in a semi-upright position as she
endeavored to hold the bottle as near her own breast as was possible.
The hole in the nipple was a bit large, which occasioned the
subsequent bolting of the food, and then to continue the "mothering"
she swayed him to and fro, all of which was interrupted suddenly by
the vomiting of a deluge of milk.

[Illustration: Fig. 10. Heating the Bottle]

I drew the shade in an adjoining room, opened the windows, and into a
comfortable carriage-bed I placed the baby on his side. Seating myself
beside him I held the warm, bottled meal as he nursed. Several times I
took it from his mouth, or so tipped it that "bolting" was impossible.
Gradually, carefully, and slowly, I took the empty bottle away from
the sleepy babe, and as I closed the door the mother said in anxious
amazement: "He won't forget I'm his mother if I don't hold him while
he nurses?" You smile as I smiled at this girl-mother's thought; but,
nevertheless there are many like her--anxious, well-meaning, but
ignorant.

The infant stomach is little more than a tube, easily emptied if the
baby's position is not carefully guarded after nursing. No bouncing,
jolting, patting, rocking, or throwing should take place either just
before, during, or immediately after meals.


TIME ALLOWANCE FOR ONE FEEDING

From twelve to twenty minutes is long enough time to spend at a bottle
meal. The nipple hole may have to be made larger, or a new nipple with
a smaller hole may have to be purchased. When new, you should be able
to just see a glimmer of light through the hole, and if the infant is
too weak to nurse hard, or the hole too small, it may be made larger
by a heated hatpin run from the inside of the nipple out; great care
must be taken, else you will do it too well. If the nipple hole is too
large, bolting is the sure result; while too small a hole results in
crying and anger on the part of the hungry child, because he has to
work too hard to get his meal.


AFTER THE FEED

We have seen some mothers, in their anxiety to prevent the sucking in
of air from the emptied bottle, rush in and jerk the nipple from the
going-to-sleep babe so forcibly that all thoughts of sleep vanished
and a crying spell was initiated. The tactful mother is the quiet one
who slowly, quietly, draws the empty bottle with its "much loved
nipple" from the lips. If you observe that the babe is going to sleep,
with an occasional superficial draw at the nipple, wait a moment; he
will drop it himself, and you can pick it up as you quietly leave the
room. In all instances, whether it be indoors or out of doors, arrange
the babe in a comfortable sleeping position, remembering that nursing
is warm exercise and the babe gets uncomfortably sweaty if
overbundled, especially about the head and neck. No one should
unnecessarily touch the babe immediately after feeding; even his
diaper may be changed without awakening him while he is thus lying
quietly in his bed.


INTERVALS BETWEEN MEALS

The three-hour interval is reckoned from the beginning of the meal,
and not from its close. More than two hours is spent in the stomach
digestion, and any food or sweetened water which may enter between
meals only tends to cause indigestion and other disturbances. And that
this important organ may have a bit of rest, we fix the interval at
three hours, which in our experience and that of many other
physicians, has yielded good results. As a rule we have no
regurgitation and no sour babies on the three-hour schedule. Sick
babies, very weak babies, and their feeding time, will be discussed in
a later chapter.


ADDITIONAL FOODS

At six months, and often as early as four, in cases of constipation,
unsweetened, well-strained prune juice may be given, beginning with
one-half teaspoon one hour before the afternoon feed and increasing it
daily until two tablespoons are taken. At six months, both orange
juice and vegetable broths are given, whose vegetable salts add a very
important food element to the baby's diet--an element which our
grandmothers thought could only be obtained through the time-honored
"bacon rind" of by-gone days.

Orange juice is also unsweetened and well strained, and is
administered in increasing amounts, beginning with one-half teaspoon
one hour before the afternoon feeding, until the juice of a whole
orange is greedily enjoyed by the time of the first birthday. The
vegetable juices are obtained from cut-up spinach, carrots, tomatoes,
and potatoes, strained, with a flavor of salt and onion--really a
bouillon--and is given just before the bottle at the six P. M.
feeding. They are also begun in teaspoon amounts.


FOOD FOR THE TRAVELING BABE

Baby travel should be reduced to a sheer necessity; never should the
babe be subjected to the exposure of disease germs, the change of
food, the possibilities of draughts and chilling, for merely a
pleasure trip--the risks are too great and the possibilities of future
trouble too far reaching.

If you are in touch with the milk laboratory of a large city, you will
find that they make a specialty of preparing feedings which are good
for a number of days for the traveling baby, and we strongly advise
that their preparations be accepted; but in the event of not being in
touch with such a laboratory we suggest the making of a carrying
ice-box covered with wicker, which must be kept replenished with ice.
Food kept in such a device may be kept fresh for twenty-four to
forty-eight hours. Plans other than the laboratory preparations or the
ice-box are risky, and should not be depended upon.

Many of our railway dining cars now pick up fresh, certified milk at
stations along the line for use on their tables, and where such is the
case fresh preparations of milk may be made on a trans-continental
trip by the aid of an alcohol stove. Malted milk may also be used,
provided you have accustomed the baby to its use a week before leaving
home, by the gradual substitution of a fourth to a half ounce each day
in the daily food; all of which, of course, should be done under your
physician's direction.

If possible, leave baby at home in his familiar, comfortable
environment in the care of a trained nurse and a trusted relative, and
under the supervision of the baby's own physician. He is much better
off, much more contented, and we are all aware of the fact that
contentment and familiarity of sights and people promote good
appetite, good digestion, and happiness--the very essentials of
success in baby feeding. We speak touchingly and sympathetically to
the mother who must leave her babe; and likewise we wish to cheer her
as we remind her that by wireless messages and night letters it is
possible to keep in touch with loved ones though a thousand miles
away.

The sanitation and modification of cow's milk, as well as stools,
etc., are taken up in later chapters.


RULES FOR THE BOTTLE-FED

1. Never play with a baby during or right after a meal.
2. Lay the baby on his side when nursing the bottle.
3. Three full hours should intervene between feedings.
4. Don't give the food too hot--it should just be warm.
5. Make the test for warmth on the inner side of your arm.
6. Give a drink of water between each meal if awake.
7. Never save the left-overs for baby.
8. If possible, give three feedings each day in the cool air, with
baby comfortably warm.
9. Do not jump, bounce, pat, or rock baby during or after meals.
10. Never coax baby to take more than he wants, or needs.
11. No solid foods are given the first year.
12. Orange juice may be given at six months; while, after four months,
unsweetened prune juice is better than medicine for the bowels.




CHAPTER XVII

MILK SANITATION


Cow's milk, like mother's milk, is made up of solids and water. In a
previous chapter we learned that in one-hundred parts of mother's
milk, eighty-seven parts were water and thirteen parts were solid.
These thirteen parts of solids consist of sugar, proteins, and salts;
this is likewise the case with cow's milk, except that in the case of
the cow's milk, the sugar is decreased while the proteins are
increased as will be noted by the accompanying comparative analysis:

MOTHER'S MILK

Fat % 4.00
Sugar 7.00
Proteins 1.50
Salts 0.20
Water 87.30
------
% 100.00

COW'S MILK

Fat % 4.00
Sugar 4.50
Proteins 3.50
Salts 0.75
Water 87.25
-----
% 100.00

Mother's milk is absolutely sterile, that is, free from the presence
of germs; on the other hand, cow's milk is anything but sterile--the
moment it leaves the udder it begins to accumulate numerous bacteria,
all of which multiply very rapidly. Cow's milk is generally
twenty-four to forty-eight hours old before it can possibly reach the
baby. It is just as important to keep in mind these facts of milk
contamination--dirt, filth, flies, and bacteria--as it is to plan for
the modification of cow's milk for the purpose of making it more
nearly resemble mother's milk. While mother's milk has about the same
percentage of fat as cow's milk, it is almost twice as rich in sugar,
and has only one-fourth to one-third as much protein. This protein is
vastly different from that found in cow's milk, which you recall has a
tough curd, as seen in cottage cheese. While mother's milk contains a
small amount of casein similar to that found in the cheese of the
cow's milk, the principal protein constituent is of another kind
(lactalbumin), and is much more easy of digestion than the casein of
cow's milk.

This is a most important point to remember, because the baby's stomach
is not at first adapted to the digestion of the heavier and tougher
protein curds of cow's milk. It requires time to accustom the infant
stomach to perform this heavier work of digestion. There are a number
of factors which must be borne in mind in the modification of milk,
whether it be cow's milk, or goat's milk (for many European physicians
use goat's milk entirely in the artificial feeding of infants):
namely, the cleanliness of the milk, the acidity of milk, the
difference in the curd, the percentage of sugar, and the presence of
bacteria.


SUGAR

In the modification of cow's milk, sugar must be added to make up for
the sugar which is decreased when the water was added to reduce the
protein. There are several sorts of sugar used in the modification of
milk. These sugars are not added to sweeten the milk alone, but to
furnish a very important element needed for the growth of the baby.
Sugar is the one element which the infant requires in the largest
amount.

Milk sugar is probably most universally used in the modification of
milk, but a good grade of milk sugar is somewhat expensive, costing
from thirty to sixty cents a pound, and this places it beyond the
reach of many mothers. It is added to the food mixtures in the
proportion of one ounce to every twenty ounces of food. Cane sugar
(table sugar) may also be used, but it must be clean and of good
quality. It is used in rather less quantity than that of milk sugar,
usually from one-half to one-third of an ounce by measure to each
twenty ounces of food. Dextri-maltose (malt sugar) is very easy of
digestion and may be used in the modification of milk. Maltose seems
to help the children to gain more rapidly in weight than when only
milk or cane sugar is used. It is also exceedingly useful in
constipation, as its action is more laxative than any of the other
sugars; but it should not be given to children who vomit habitually or
have loose stools.


ACIDITY

Like mother's milk, the cow's milk is neutral as it comes from the
udder; but, on standing, it quickly changes, soon becoming slightly
acid, as shown by testing with blue litmus paper. In fact, what is
known as ordinarily fresh milk, if subjected to the litmus paper test,
always gives an acid reaction. This acidity is neutralized by adding
lime water to the formula in the proportion of one ounce to each
twenty-ounce mixture. Ordinary baking soda is sometimes prescribed by
physicians in place of the lime water. In the event of obstinate
constipation, milk of magnesia is sometimes added to the day's
feedings.


CREAM

There may be procured in any large city an instrument called the cream
gauge, which registers approximately (not accurately) the richness of
milk. Some milk, even though rich, parts with its cream very slowly;
while some poor milk allows nearly all the cream quickly to rise to
the surface. We know of no way for the mother to determine the amount
of cream (without the cream gauge) except by the color and richness of
the milk. In cities it is very convenient to send a specimen of the
milk to the laboratories to be examined by experts, who will gladly
render a report to both physician and mother.

The lactometer is a little instrument used to estimate the specific
gravity of milk. An ordinary urinometer such as used by physicians
in estimating the specific gravity of urine may also be used. The
specific gravity of cow's milk should not register below 1028 or above
1033.

[Illustration: Fig. 11. A Sanitary Dairy

_Courtesy of Lakewood Farm_

_Courtesy of Lakewood Farm_]


HERD MILK

Milk from a single cow is not to be desired for baby's food because of
its liability to vary from day to day, not to mention the danger of
the cow's becoming sick. Authorities have agreed that herd milk of
Holstein or ordinary grade cows is best for infant feeding. This
mixed-herd milk contains just about the proper percentage of fat;
whereas, if Jersey milk must be used, some of the cream should be
taken away. Our milk should come from healthy cows which have been
tested for tuberculosis at least every three months.

Annatto is sometimes added to milk to increase its richness of color.
To test for annatto proceed as follows: To a couple of tablespoons of
milk add a pinch of ordinary baking soda. Insert one-half of a strip
of filter paper in the milk and allow it to remain over night. Annatto
will give a distinct orange tint to the paper. The commonly used milk
preservatives are boracic acid, salicylic acid, and formaldehyde, any
of which may be readily detected by your health officials.


SANITARY DAIRIES

In close proximity to most large cities there is usually to be found
one or more sanitary dairies. It is a joy indeed to visit a farm of
this kind with its airy stables and concrete floors, which are washed
with water coming from a hose. The drainage is perfect--all filth is
immediately carried off (Fig. 11). The cows are known to be free from
tuberculosis, actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), and foot and mouth disease.
The milkmen on this farm wear washable clothes at the milking time,
and their hands are painstakingly cleansed just before the milking
hour. Previous to the milking the cattle have been curried outside the
milking room and their udders have received a careful washing. The
milkman grasps the teat with clean hands, while the milk is allowed to
flow through several thicknesses of sterilized gauze into the sanitary
milking pail. This milk is at once poured into sterile bottles, is
quickly cooled and shipped in ice to the substations where the
delivery wagon is waiting. In the ideal delivery wagon there are
shallow vats of ice in which the bottles are placed, thus permitting
the milk to reach the baby's home having all the while been kept at a
temperature just above the freezing point.

And why all this trouble? Why all this worry over temperature and
cleanliness? Babies were not so cared for in the days of our
grandmothers. The old-fashioned way of milking the cows with dirty
clothes and soiled hands, while cattle were more or less covered with
manure, with their tails switching millions of manure germs into the
milking pail, produced a milk laden not only with manure germs--the
one great cause of infantile diarrhea--but also swarming with numerous
other mischief making microbes. Even tuberculosis, that much dreaded
disease germ of early infancy, may come from the dairy hands as well
as from infected cows.

There used to be many dairymen like the old farmer who, when
interrogated by the health commissioner concerning the cleanliness of
his milk, laughed as he reached down into the bottom of a pail of
yellow milk and grabbing up a handful of manure and straw, said:
"That's what makes the youngsters grow." But it does not make them
grow; it often causes them to die, and even if they do live, they live
in spite of such contaminated food, for the germ which is always found
in the colon of the cow (_coli communis_), probably kills more babies
every year than any other single thing.

It is possible to reduce the growth of these germs by keeping the milk
at a very low temperature from the time it leaves the cow until the
moment it gets to the home refrigerator. Those which survive this
process of refrigeration may be quickly rendered harmless by
pasteurizing or sterilizing at the time of preparing baby's food.

In the absence of the modern sanitary dairy, we would suggest that the
milk supply be improved by giving attention to the following:

The cattle should be tested for tuberculosis every three months. The
walls of the cowhouse should be whitewashed three times a year. The
manure should be stored outside the barn. The floor of the cowhouse
should be sprinkled and swept each day. The cattle should be kept
clean--curried each day, and rubbed off with a damp cloth before
milking. The udders should be washed before each milking. The milker
can wear a clean white gown or linen duster which should be washed
every two days, while his hands should be washed just before the
milking. The milking pail should be of the covered sanitary order. The
barn should be screened.


CERTIFIED MILK

Immediately after leaving the cow, the milk should be cooled to at
least 45 F. It should at once be put into bottles that have been
previously sterilized and then be tightly covered, and should be kept
in ice water until ready for consumption. No matter how carefully the
milk is handled, it is infected with many bacteria, but if it is
quickly cooled, the increase of the bacteria is greatly retarded.
Under no circumstances buy milk from a grocery store out of a large
can. Go to your health officer and encourage him in his campaign for
sanitary dairies and certified milk.

Such milk as we have described under the head of sanitary dairies,
when it has been tested by the board of health and has received the
approval of the medical profession, is known as "certified milk;" and,
although the price is usually fifteen to twenty cents a quart, when
compared with the cost of baby's illness it will prove to be cheaper
than the dirty milk which sickens and kills the little folks.

There is no doubt that the increased use of "certified milk" has been
a great factor in the reduction of deaths from infant diarrhea in
recent years.


BOILING THE MILK

When certified milk cannot be had, it is absolutely dangerous to give
raw, unboiled, or unpasteurized milk to the baby, particularly in warm
weather; for the countless millions of manure germs found in each
teaspoon of ordinary milk not only disturbs the baby's digestion, but
actually makes him sick, causing colic, diarrhea, and cholera
infantum. The only way this milk can be rendered safe is by cooking
it--actually killing the bacteria. This process of boiling, however,
does not make good milk out of bad milk nor clean milk out of that
which is dirty, it simply renders the milk less dangerous.

There are two methods of killing bacteria--sterilization and
pasteurization. By sterilization is meant the process of rendering the
milk germ free by heating, by boiling. Many of the germs found in milk
are comparatively harmless, merely causing the souring of milk; but
other microbes are occasionally present which cause serious diseases,
such as measles, typhoid and scarlet fever, diphtheria, tuberculosis,
and diarrhea. It is always necessary to heat the milk before using in
warm weather, and during the winter it is also important when
infectious or contagious diseases are prevalent.

Milk should be sterilized when intended for use on a long journey, and
may be eaten as late as two or three days afterward.

To sterilize milk, place it in a well-protected kettle and allow to
boil for one hour and then rapidly cool. This process renders it more
constipating, and for some children many of its nutritive properties
seem to be destroyed, as scurvy is often the result of its prolonged
use. When a child must subsist upon boiled milk for a long period, he
should be given the juice of an orange each day. Children are not
usually strong and normal when fed upon milk of this character for
indefinite periods. All living bacteria (except the spores or eggs)
may be destroyed by boiling milk for one or two minutes.

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