Pierre Louys - "Les chansons de Bilitis"

Alice Turner Curtis - "A Little Maid of Old Maine"

May Baldwin - "Sarah's School Friend"

Charles Darwin - "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Ten Books on Architecture

V >> Vitruvius >> Ten Books on Architecture




4. Later, the Athenians, in obedience to oracles of the Delphic Apollo,
and with the general agreement of all Hellas, despatched thirteen
colonies at one time to Asia Minor, appointing leaders for each colony
and giving the command-in-chief to Ion, son of Xuthus and Creusa (whom
further Apollo at Delphi in the oracles had acknowledged as his son).
Ion conducted those colonies to Asia Minor, took possession of the land
of Caria, and there founded the grand cities of Ephesus, Miletus, Myus
(long ago engulfed by the water, and its sacred rites and suffrage
handed over by the Ionians to the Milesians), Priene, Samos, Teos,
Colophon, Chius, Erythrae, Phocaea, Clazomenae, Lebedos, and Melite.
This Melite, on account of the arrogance of its citizens, was destroyed
by the other cities in a war declared by general agreement, and in its
place, through the kindness of King Attalus and Arsinoe, the city of the
Smyrnaeans was admitted among the Ionians.

5. Now these cities, after driving out the Carians and Lelegans, called
that part of the world Ionia from their leader Ion, and there they set
off precincts for the immortal gods and began to build fanes: first of
all, a temple to Panionion Apollo such as they had seen in Achaea,
calling it Doric because they had first seen that kind of temple built
in the states of the Dorians.

6. Wishing to set up columns in that temple, but not having rules for
their symmetry, and being in search of some way by which they could
render them fit to bear a load and also of a satisfactory beauty of
appearance, they measured the imprint of a man's foot and compared this
with his height. On finding that, in a man, the foot was one sixth of
the height, they applied the same principle to the column, and reared
the shaft, including the capital, to a height six times its thickness at
its base. Thus the Doric column, as used in buildings, began to exhibit
the proportions, strength, and beauty of the body of a man.

7. Just so afterwards, when they desired to construct a temple to Diana
in a new style of beauty, they translated these footprints into terms
characteristic of the slenderness of women, and thus first made a column
the thickness of which was only one eighth of its height, so that it
might have a taller look. At the foot they substituted the base in
place of a shoe; in the capital they placed the volutes, hanging down at
the right and left like curly ringlets, and ornamented its front with
cymatia and with festoons of fruit arranged in place of hair, while they
brought the flutes down the whole shaft, falling like the folds in the
robes worn by matrons. Thus in the invention of the two different kinds
of columns, they borrowed manly beauty, naked and unadorned, for the
one, and for the other the delicacy, adornment, and proportions
characteristic of women.

8. It is true that posterity, having made progress in refinement and
delicacy of feeling, and finding pleasure in more slender proportions,
has established seven diameters of the thickness as the height of the
Doric column, and nine as that of the Ionic. The Ionians, however,
originated the order which is therefore named Ionic.

The third order, called Corinthian, is an imitation of the slenderness
of a maiden; for the outlines and limbs of maidens, being more slender
on account of their tender years, admit of prettier effects in the way
of adornment.

9. It is related that the original discovery of this form of capital was
as follows. A free-born maiden of Corinth, just of marriageable age, was
attacked by an illness and passed away. After her burial, her nurse,
collecting a few little things which used to give the girl pleasure
while she was alive, put them in a basket, carried it to the tomb, and
laid it on top thereof, covering it with a roof-tile so that the things
might last longer in the open air. This basket happened to be placed
just above the root of an acanthus. The acanthus root, pressed down
meanwhile though it was by the weight, when springtime came round put
forth leaves and stalks in the middle, and the stalks, growing up along
the sides of the basket, and pressed out by the corners of the tile
through the compulsion of its weight, were forced to bend into volutes
at the outer edges.

[Illustration: Photo. Sommer

THE BASILICA AT POMPEII]

[Illustration: THE CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF VITRUVIUS COMPARED WITH THE
MONUMENTS]

10. Just then Callimachus, whom the Athenians called [Greek:
katatexitechnos] for the refinement and delicacy of his artistic
work, passed by this tomb and observed the basket with the tender
young leaves growing round it. Delighted with the novel style and form,
he built some columns after that pattern for the Corinthians, determined
their symmetrical proportions, and established from that time forth the
rules to be followed in finished works of the Corinthian order.

11. The proportions of this capital should be fixed as follows. Let the
height of the capital, including its abacus, be equivalent to the
thickness of the base of a column. Let the breadth of the abacus be
proportioned so that diagonals drawn from one corner of it to the other
shall be twice the height of the capitals, which will give the proper
breadth to each face of the abacus. The faces should curve inwards, by
one ninth of the breadth of the face, from the outside edge of the
corners of the abacus. At the bottom the capital should be of the
thickness of the top of the column omitting the conge and astragal. The
height of the abacus is one seventh of the height of the capital.

12. Omitting the height of the abacus, let the rest be divided into
three parts, of which one should be given to the lowest leaf. Let the
second leaf occupy the middle part of the height. Of the same height
should be the stalks, out of which grow leaves projected so as to
support the volutes which proceed from the stalks, and run out to the
utmost corners of the abacus; the smaller spirals between them should be
carved just under the flower which is on the abacus. The flowers on the
four sides are to be made as large as the height of the abacus. On these
principles of proportion, Corinthian capitals will be finished as they
ought to be.

There are other kinds of capitals set upon these same columns and called
by various names, but they have no peculiarities of proportion of which
we can speak, nor can we recognize from them another order of columns.
Even their very names are, as we can see, derived with some changes from
the Corinthian, the cushion-shaped, and the Doric, whose symmetrical
proportions have been thus transferred to delicate sculptures of novel
form.




CHAPTER II

THE ORNAMENTS OF THE ORDERS


1. Since the origin and invention of the orders of columns have been
described above, I think it not out of place to speak in the same way
about their ornaments, showing how these arose and from what original
elements they were devised. The upper parts of all buildings contain
timber work to which various terms are applied. And not only in its
terminology but actually in its uses it exhibits variety. The main beams
are those which are laid upon columns, pilasters, and antae; tie-beams
and rafters are found in the framing. Under the roof, if the span is
pretty large, are the crossbeams and struts; if it is of moderate
extent, only the ridgepole, with the principal rafters extending to the
outer edge of the eaves. Over the principal rafters are the purlines,
and then above these and under the roof-tiles come the common rafters,
extending so far that the walls are covered by their projection.

2. Thus each and every detail has a place, origin, and order of its own.
In accordance with these details, and starting from carpenter's work,
artists in building temples of stone and marble imitated those
arrangements in their sculptures, believing that they must follow those
inventions. So it was that some ancient carpenters, engaged in building
somewhere or other, after laying the tie-beams so that they projected
from the inside to the outside of the walls, closed up the space between
the beams, and above them ornamented the coronae and gables with
carpentry work of beauty greater than usual; then they cut off the
projecting ends of the beams, bringing them into line and flush with the
face of the walls; next, as this had an ugly look to them, they fastened
boards, shaped as triglyphs are now made, on the ends of the beams,
where they had been cut off in front, and painted them with blue wax so
that the cutting off of the ends of the beams, being concealed, would
not offend the eye. Hence it was in imitation of the arrangement of the
tie-beams that men began to employ, in Doric buildings, the device of
triglyphs and the metopes between the beams.

3. Later, others in other buildings allowed the projecting principal
rafters to run out till they were flush with the triglyphs, and then
formed their projections into simae. From that practice, like the
triglyphs from the arrangement of the tie-beams, the system of mutules
under the coronae was devised from the projections of the principal
rafters. Hence generally, in buildings of stone and marble, the mutules
are carved with a downward slant, in imitation of the principal rafters.
For these necessarily have a slanting and projecting position to let the
water drip down. The scheme of triglyphs and mutules in Doric buildings
was, therefore, the imitative device that I have described.

4. It cannot be that the triglyphs represent windows, as some have
erroneously said, since the triglyphs are placed at the corners and over
the middle of columns--places where, from the nature of the case, there
can be no windows at all. For buildings are wholly disconnected at the
corners if openings for windows are left at those points. Again, if we
are to suppose that there were open windows where the triglyphs now
stand, it will follow, on the same principle, that the dentils of the
Ionic order have likewise taken the places of windows. For the term
"metope" is used of the intervals between dentils as well as of those
between triglyphs. The Greeks call the seats of tie-beams and rafters
[Greek: opai], while our people call these cavities columbaria
(dovecotes). Hence, the space between the tie-beams, being the space
between two "opae," was named by them [Greek: metope].

5. The system of triglyphs and mutules was invented for the Doric order,
and similarly the scheme of dentils belongs to the Ionic, in which there
are proper grounds for its use in buildings. Just as mutules represent
the projection of the principal rafters, so dentils in the Ionic are an
imitation of the projections of the common rafters. And so in Greek
works nobody ever put dentils under mutules, as it is impossible that
common rafters should be underneath principal rafters. Therefore, if
that which in the original must be placed above the principal rafters,
is put in the copy below them, the result will be a work constructed on
false principles. Neither did the ancients approve of or employ mutules
or dentils in pediments, but only plain coronae, for the reason that
neither principal nor common rafters tail into the fronts of pediments,
nor can they overhang them, but they are laid with a slope towards the
eaves. Hence the ancients held that what could not happen in the
original would have no valid reason for existence in the copy.

6. For in all their works they proceeded on definite principles of
fitness and in ways derived from the truth of Nature. Thus they reached
perfection, approving only those things which, if challenged, can be
explained on grounds of the truth. Hence, from the sources which have
been described they established and left us the rules of symmetry and
proportion for each order. Following in their steps, I have spoken above
on the Ionic and Corinthian styles, and I shall now briefly explain the
theory of the Doric and its general appearance.




CHAPTER III

PROPORTIONS OF DORIC TEMPLES


1. Some of the ancient architects said that the Doric order ought not to
be used for temples, because faults and incongruities were caused by the
laws of its symmetry. Arcesius and Pytheos said so, as well as
Hermogenes. He, for instance, after getting together a supply of marble
for the construction of a Doric temple, changed his mind and built an
Ionic temple to Father Bacchus with the same materials. This is not
because it is unlovely in appearance or origin or dignity of form, but
because the arrangement of the triglyphs and metopes (lacunaria) is an
embarrassment and inconvenience to the work.

2. For the triglyphs ought to be placed so as to correspond to the
centres of the columns, and the metopes between the triglyphs ought to
be as broad as they are high. But in violation of this rule, at the
corner columns triglyphs are placed at the outside edges and not
corresponding to the centre of the columns. Hence the metopes next to
the corner columns do not come out perfectly square, but are too broad
by half the width of a triglyph. Those who would make the metopes all
alike, make the outermost intercolumniations narrower by half the width
of a triglyph. But the result is faulty, whether it is attained by
broader metopes or narrower intercolumniations. For this reason, the
ancients appear to have avoided the scheme of the Doric order in their
temples.

3. However, since our plan calls for it, we set it forth as we have
received it from our teachers, so that if anybody cares to set to work
with attention to these laws, he may find the proportions stated by
which he can construct correct and faultless examples of temples in the
Doric fashion.

Let the front of a Doric temple, at the place where the columns are put
up, be divided, if it is to be tetrastyle, into twenty-seven parts; if
hexastyle, into forty-two. One of these parts will be the module (in
Greek [Greek: embates]); and this module once fixed, all the parts of
the work are adjusted by means of calculations based upon it.

4. The thickness of the columns will be two modules, and their height,
including the capitals, fourteen. The height of a capital will be one
module, and its breadth two and one sixth modules. Let the height of the
capital be divided into three parts, of which one will form the abacus
with its cymatium, the second the echinus with its annulets, and the
third the necking. The diminution of the column should be the same as
described for Ionic columns in the third book. The height of the
architrave, including taenia and guttae, is one module, and of the
taenia, one seventh of a module. The guttae, extending as wide as the
triglyphs and beneath the taenia, should hang down for one sixth of a
module, including their regula. The depth of the architrave on its under
side should answer to the necking at the top of the column. Above the
architrave, the triglyphs and metopes are to be placed: the triglyphs
one and one half modules high, and one module wide in front. They are to
be arranged so that one is placed to correspond to the centre of each
corner and intermediate column, and two over each intercolumniation
except the middle intercolumniations of the front and rear porticoes,
which have three each. The intervals in the middle being thus extended,
a free passage will be afforded to those who would approach the statues
of the gods.

[Illustration: VITRUVIUS' DORIC ORDER COMPARED WITH THE TEMPLE AT CORI
AND THE DORIC ORDER OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS]

5. The width of the triglyph should be divided into six parts, and five
of these marked off in the middle by means of the rule, and two half
parts at the right and left. Let one part, that in the centre, form a
"femur" (in Greek [Greek: meros]). On each side of it are the channels,
to be cut in to fit the tip of a carpenter's square, and in succession
the other femora, one at the right and the other at the left of a
channel. To the outsides are relegated the semichannels. The triglyphs
having been thus arranged, let the metopes between the triglyphs be as
high as they are wide, while at the outer corners there should be
semimetopes inserted, with the width of half a module.

In these ways all defects will be corrected, whether in metopes or
intercolumniations or lacunaria, as all the arrangements have been made
with uniformity.

6. The capitals of each triglyph are to measure one sixth of a module.
Over the capitals of the triglyphs the corona is to be placed, with a
projection of two thirds of a module, and having a Doric cymatium at the
bottom and another at the top. So the corona with its cymatia is half a
module in height. Set off on the under side of the corona, vertically
over the triglyphs and over the middle of the metopes, are the viae in
straight lines and the guttae arranged in rows, six guttae broad and
three deep. The spaces left (due to the fact that the metopes are
broader than the triglyphs) may be left unornamented or may have
thunderbolts carved on them. Just at the edge of the corona a line
should be cut in, called the scotia. All the other parts, such as
tympana and the simae of the corona, are to be constructed as described
above in the case of the Ionic order.

7. Such will be the scheme established for diastyle buildings. But if
the building is to be systyle and monotriglyphic, let the front of the
temple, if tetrastyle, be divided into nineteen and a half parts; if
hexastyle, into twenty-nine and a half parts. One of these parts will
form the module in accordance with which the adjustments are to be made
as above described.

8. Thus, over each portion of the architrave two metopes and two
triglyphs[3] will be placed; and, in addition, at the corners half a
triglyph and besides a space large enough for a half triglyph. At the
centre, vertically under the gable, there should be room for three
triglyphs and three metopes, in order that the centre intercolumniation,
by its greater width, may give ample room for people to enter the
temple, and may lend an imposing effect to the view of the statues of
the gods.

[Note 3: That is: two metopes with a triglyph between them, and half
of the triglyph on either side.]

9. The columns should be fluted with twenty flutes. If these are to be
left plane, only the twenty angles need be marked off. But if they are
to be channelled out, the contour of the channelling may be determined
thus: draw a square with sides equal in length to the breadth of the
fluting, and centre a pair of compasses in the middle of this square.
Then describe a circle with a circumference touching the angles of the
square, and let the channellings have the contour of the segment formed
by the circumference and the side of the square. The fluting of the
Doric column will thus be finished in the style appropriate to it.

10. With regard to the enlargement to be made in the column at its
middle, let the description given for Ionic columns in the third book be
applied here also in the case of Doric.

Since the external appearance of the Corinthian, Doric, and Ionic
proportions has now been described, it is necessary next to explain the
arrangements of the cella and the pronaos.




CHAPTER IV

THE CELLA AND PRONAOS


1. The length of a temple is adjusted so that its width may be half its
length, and the actual cella one fourth greater in length than in width,
including the wall in which the folding doors are placed. Let the
remaining three parts, constituting the pronaos, extend to the antae
terminating the walls, which antae ought to be of the same thickness as
the columns. If the temple is to be more than twenty feet in width, let
two columns be placed between the two antae, to separate the pteroma
from the pronaos. The three intercolumniations between the antae and the
columns should be closed by low walls made of marble or of joiner's
work, with doors in them to afford passages into the pronaos.

2. If the width is to be more than forty feet, let columns be placed
inside and opposite to the columns between the antae. They should have
the same height as the columns in front of them, but their thickness
should be proportionately reduced: thus, if the columns in front are in
thickness one eighth of their height, these should be one tenth; if the
former are one ninth or one tenth, these should be reduced in the same
proportion. For their reduction will not be discernible, as the air has
not free play about them. Still, in case they look too slender, when the
outer columns have twenty or twenty-four flutes, these may have
twenty-eight or thirty-two. Thus the additional number of flutes will
make up proportionately for the loss in the body of the shaft,
preventing it from being seen, and so in a different way the columns
will be made to look equally thick.

[Illustration: VITRUVIUS' TEMPLE PLAN COMPARED WITH ACTUAL EXAMPLES]

3. The reason for this result is that the eye, touching thus upon a
greater number of points, set closer together, has a larger compass to
cover with its range of vision. For if two columns, equally thick but
one unfluted and the other fluted, are measured by drawing lines round
them, one line touching the body of the columns in the hollows of the
channels and on the edges of the flutes, these surrounding lines, even
though the columns are equally thick, will not be equal to each other,
because it takes a line of greater length to compass the channels and
the flutes. This being granted, it is not improper, in narrow quarters
or where the space is enclosed, to use in a building columns of somewhat
slender proportions, since we can help out by a duly proportionate
number of flutings.

4. The walls of the cella itself should be thick in proportion to its
size, provided that their antae are kept of the same thickness as the
columns. If the walls are to be of masonry, let the rubble used be as
small as possible; but if they are to be of dimension stone or marble,
the material ought to be of a very moderate and uniform size; for the
laying of the stones so as to break joints will make the whole work
stronger, and their bevelled edges, standing up about the builds and
beds, will give it an agreeable look, somewhat like that of a picture.




CHAPTER V

HOW THE TEMPLE SHOULD FACE


1. The quarter toward which temples of the immortal gods ought to face
is to be determined on the principle that, if there is no reason to
hinder and the choice is free, the temple and the statue placed in the
cella should face the western quarter of the sky. This will enable those
who approach the altar with offerings or sacrifices to face the
direction of the sunrise in facing the statue in the temple, and thus
those who are undertaking vows look toward the quarter from which the
sun comes forth, and likewise the statues themselves appear to be coming
forth out of the east to look upon them as they pray and sacrifice.

2. But if the nature of the site is such as to forbid this, then the
principle of determining the quarter should be changed, so that the
widest possible view of the city may be had from the sanctuaries of the
gods. Furthermore, temples that are to be built beside rivers, as in
Egypt on both sides of the Nile, ought, as it seems, to face the river
banks. Similarly, houses of the gods on the sides of public roads should
be arranged so that the passers-by can have a view of them and pay their
devotions face to face.




CHAPTER VI

THE DOORWAYS OF TEMPLES


1. For the doorways of temples and their casings the rules are as
follows, first determining of what style they are to be. The styles of
portals are Doric, Ionic, and Attic.

In the Doric, the symmetrical proportions are distinguished by the
following rules. Let the top of the corona, which is laid above the
casing, be on a level with the tops of the capitals of the columns in
the pronaos. The aperture of the doorway should be determined by
dividing the height of the temple, from floor to coffered ceiling, into
three and one half parts and letting two and one half[4] thereof
constitute the height of the aperture of the folding doors. Let this in
turn be divided into twelve parts, and let five and a half of these form
the width of the bottom of the aperture. At the top, this width should
be diminished, if the aperture is sixteen feet in height, by one third
the width of the door-jamb; if the aperture is from sixteen to
twenty-five feet, let the upper part of it be diminished by one quarter
of the jamb; if from twenty-five to thirty feet, let the top be
diminished by one eighth of the jamb. Other and higher apertures should,
as it seems, have their sides perpendicular.

[Note 4: Codd. _duae._]

2. Further, the jambs themselves should be diminished at the top by one
fourteenth of their width. The height of the lintel should be equivalent
to the width of the jambs at the top. Its cymatium ought to be one sixth
of the jamb, with a projection equivalent to its height. The style of
carving of the cymatium with its astragal should be the Lesbian. Above
the cymatium of the lintel, place the frieze of the doorway, of the
same height as the lintel, and having a Doric cymatium and Lesbian
astragal carved upon it. Let the corona and its cymatium at the top of
all be carved without ornamentation, and have a projection equal to its
height. To the right and left of the lintel, which rests upon the jambs,
there are to be projections fashioned like projecting bases and jointed
to a nicety with the cymatium itself.

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