Ten Books on Architecture

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17. Afterwards, however, when Demetrius of Phalerum was master of
Athens, Philo set up columns in front before the temple, and made it
prostyle. Thus, by adding an entrance hall, he gave the initiates more
room, and imparted the greatest dignity to the building. Finally, in
Athens, the temple of the Olympion with its dimensions on a generous
scale, and built in the Corinthian style and proportions, is said to
have been constructed, as written above, by Cossutius, no commentary by
whom has been found. But Cossutius is not the only man by whom we should
like to have writings on our subject. Another is Gaius Mucius, who,
having great knowledge on which to rely, completed the cella, columns,
and entablature of the Marian temple of Honour and Valour, in
symmetrical proportions according to the accepted rules of the art. If
this building had been of marble, so that besides the refinement of its
art it possessed the dignity coming from magnificence and great outlay,
it would be reckoned among the first and greatest of works.

18. Since it appears, then, that our architects in the old days, and a
good many even in our own times, have been as great as those of the
Greeks, and nevertheless only a few of them have published treatises, I
resolved not to be silent, but to treat the different topics
methodically in different books. Hence, since I have given an account of
private houses in the sixth book, in this, which is the seventh in
order, I shall treat of polished finishings and the methods of giving
them both beauty and durability.

CHAPTER I

FLOORS

1. First I shall begin with the concrete flooring, which is the most
important of the polished finishings, observing that great pains and the
utmost precaution must be taken to ensure its durability. If this
concrete flooring is to be laid level with the ground, let the soil be
tested to see whether it is everywhere solid, and if it is, level it off
and upon it lay the broken stone with its bedding. But if the floor is
either wholly or partly filling, it should be rammed down hard with
great care. In case a wooden framework is used, however, we must see
that no wall which does not reach up to the top of the house is
constructed under the floor. Any wall which is there should preferably
fall short, so as to leave the wooden planking above it an unsupported
span. If a wall comes up solid, the unyielding nature of its solid
structure must, when the joists begin to dry, or to sag and settle, lead
to cracks in the floor on the right and left along the line of wall.

2. We must also be careful that no common oak gets in with the winter
oak boards, for as soon as common oak boards get damp, they warp and
cause cracks in floors. But if there is no winter oak, and necessity
drives, for lack of this it seems advisable to use common oak boards cut
pretty thin; for the less thick they are, the more easily they can be
held in place by being nailed on. Then, at the ends of every joist, nail
on two boards so that they shall not be able to warp and stick up at the
edges. As for Turkey oak or beech or ash, none of them can last to a
great age.

When the wooden planking is finished, cover it with fern, if there is
any, otherwise with straw, to protect the wood from being hurt by the
lime.

3. Then, upon this lay the bedding, composed of stones not smaller than
can fill the hand. After the bedding is laid, mix the broken stone in
the proportions, if it is new, of three parts to one of lime; if it is
old material used again, five parts may answer to two in the mixture.
Next, lay the mixture of broken stone, bring on your gangs, and beat it
again and again with wooden beetles into a solid mass, and let it be not
less than three quarters of a foot in thickness when the beating is
finished. On this lay the nucleus, consisting of pounded tile mixed with
lime in the proportions of three parts to one, and forming a layer not
less than six digits thick. On top of the nucleus, the floor, whether
made of cut slips or of cubes, should be well and truly laid by rule and
level.

4. After it is laid and set at the proper inclination, let it be rubbed
down so that, if it consists of cut slips, the lozenges, or triangles,
or squares, or hexagons may not stick up at different levels, but be all
jointed together on the same plane with one another; if it is laid in
cubes, so that all the edges may be level; for the rubbing down will not
be properly finished unless all the edges are on the same level plane.
The herring-bone pattern, made of Tibur burnt brick, must also be
carefully finished, so as to be without gaps or ridges sticking up, but
all flat and rubbed down to rule. When the rubbing down is completely
finished by means of the smoothing and polishing processes, sift
powdered marble on top, and lay on a coating of lime and sand.

5. In the open air, specially adapted kinds of floors must be made,
because their framework, swelling with dampness, or shrinking from
dryness, or sagging and settling, injures the floors by these changes;
besides, the frost and rime will not let them go unhurt. Hence, if
necessity drives, we must proceed as follows in order to make them as
free from defects as possible. After finishing the plank flooring, lay a
second plank flooring over it at right angles, and nail it down so as to
give double protection to the framework. Then, mix with new broken stone
one third the quantity of pounded tile, and let lime be added to the
mixture in the mortar trough in the proportion of two parts to five.

6. Having made the bedding, lay on this mixture of broken stone, and
let it be not less than a foot thick when the beating is finished. Then,
after laying the nucleus, as above described, construct the floor of
large cubes cut about two digits each way, and let it have an
inclination of two digits for every ten feet. If it is well put together
and properly rubbed down, it will be free from all flaws. In order that
the mortar in the joints may not suffer from frosts, drench it with
oil-dregs every year before winter begins. Thus treated, it will not let
the hoarfrost enter it.

7. If, however, it seems needful to use still greater care, lay two-foot
tiles, jointed together in a bed of mortar, over the broken stone, with
little channels of one finger's breadth cut in the faces of all the
joints. Connect these channels and fill them with a mixture of lime and
oil; then, rub the joints hard and make them compact. Thus, the lime
sticking in the channels will harden and solidify into a mass, and so
prevent water or anything else from penetrating through the joints.
After this layer is finished, spread the nucleus upon it, and work it
down by beating it with rods. Upon this lay the floor, at the
inclination above described, either of large cubes or burnt brick in
herring-bone pattern, and floors thus constructed will not soon be
spoiled.

CHAPTER II

THE SLAKING OF LIME FOR STUCCO

1. Leaving the subject of floors, we must next treat of stucco work.
This will be all right if the best lime, taken in lumps, is slaked a
good while before it is to be used, so that if any lump has not been
burned long enough in the kiln, it will be forced to throw off its heat
during the long course of slaking in the water, and will thus be
thoroughly burned to the same consistency. When it is taken not
thoroughly slaked but fresh, it has little crude bits concealed in it,
and so, when applied, it blisters. When such bits complete their slaking
after they are on the building, they break up and spoil the smooth
polish of the stucco.

2. But when the proper attention has been paid to the slaking, and
greater pains have thus been employed in the preparation for the work,
take a hoe, and apply it to the slaked lime in the mortar bed just as
you hew wood. If it sticks to the hoe in bits, the lime is not yet
tempered; and when the iron is drawn out dry and clean, it will show
that the lime is weak and thirsty; but when the lime is rich and
properly slaked, it will stick to the tool like glue, proving that it is
completely tempered. Then get the scaffolding ready, and proceed to
construct the vaultings in the rooms, unless they are to be decorated
with flat coffered ceilings.

CHAPTER III

VAULTINGS AND STUCCO WORK

1. When vaulting is required, the procedure should be as follows. Set up
horizontal furring strips at intervals of not more than two feet apart,
using preferably cypress, as fir is soon spoiled by decay and by age.
Arrange these strips so as to form a curve, and make them fast to the
joists of the floor above or to the roof, if it is there, by nailing
them with many iron nails to ties fixed at intervals. These ties should
be made of a kind of wood that neither decay nor time nor dampness can
spoil, such as box, juniper, olive, oak, cypress, or any other similar
wood except common oak; for this warps, and causes cracks in work in
which it is used.

2. Having arranged the furring strips, take cord made of Spanish broom,
and tie Greek reeds, previously pounded flat, to them in the required
contour. Immediately above the vaulting spread some mortar made of lime
and sand, to check any drops that may fall from the joists or from the
roof. If a supply of Greek reed is not to be had, gather slender marsh
reeds, and make them up with silk cord into bundles all of the same
thickness and adjusted to the proper length, provided that the bundles
are not more than two feet long between any two knots. Then tie them
with cord to the beams, as above described, and drive wooden pegs into
them. Make all the other preparations as above described.

3. Having thus set the vaultings in their places and interwoven them,
apply the rendering coat to their lower surface; then lay on the sand
mortar, and afterwards polish it off with the powdered marble. After the
vaultings have been polished, set the impost mouldings directly beneath
them. These obviously ought to be made extremely slender and delicate,
for when they are large, their weight carries them down, and they cannot
support themselves. Gypsum should by no means be used in their
composition, but powdered marble should be laid on uniformly, lest
gypsum, by setting too quickly should keep the work from drying
uniformly. We must also beware of the ancients' scheme for vaultings;
for in their mouldings the soffits overhang very heavily, and are
dangerous.

4. Some mouldings are flat, others in relief. In rooms where there has
to be a fire or a good many lights, they should be flat, so that they
can be wiped off more easily. In summer apartments and in exedrae where
there is no smoke nor soot to hurt them, they should be made in relief.
It is always the case that stucco, in the pride of its dazzling white,
gathers smoke not only from its own house but also from others.

5. Having finished the mouldings, apply a very rough rendering coat to
the walls, and afterwards, when the rendering coat gets pretty dry,
spread upon it the layers of sand mortar, exactly adjusted in length to
rule and line, in height to the plummet, and at the angles to the
square. The stucco will thus present a faultless appearance for
paintings. When it gets pretty dry, spread on a second coat and then a
third. The better the foundation of sand mortar that is laid on, the
stronger and more durable in its solidity will be the stucco.

6. When not less than three coats of sand mortar, besides the rendering
coat, have been laid on, then, we must make the mixture for the layers
of powdered marble, the mortar being so tempered that when mixed it does
not stick to the trowel, but the iron comes out freely and clean from
the mortar trough. After this powdered marble has been spread on and
gets dry, lay on a medium second coat. When that has been applied and
well rubbed down, spread on a finer coat. The walls, being thus rendered
solid by three coats of sand mortar and as many of marble, will not
possibly be liable to cracks or to any other defect.

7. And further, such walls, owing to the solid foundation given by
thorough working with polishing instruments, and the smoothness of it,
due to the hard and dazzling white marble, will bring out in brilliant
splendour the colours which are laid on at the same time with the
polishing.

These colours, when they are carefully laid on stucco still wet, do not
fade but are permanent. This is because the lime, having had its
moisture burned out in the kiln, becomes porous and loses its strength,
and its dryness makes it take up anything that may come in contact with
it. On mixing with the seeds or elements that come from other
substances, it forms a solid mass with them and, no matter what the
constituent parts may then be, it must, obviously, on becoming dry,
possess the qualities which are peculiar to its own nature.

8. Hence, stucco that is properly made does not get rough as time goes
on, nor lose its colours when it is wiped off, unless they have been
laid on with little care and after it is dry. So, when the stucco on
walls is made as described above, it will have strength and brilliancy,
and an excellence that will last to a great age. But when only one coat
of sand mortar and one of fine marble have been spread on, its thin
layer is easily cracked from want of strength, and from its lack of
thickness it will not take on the brilliance, due to polishing, which it
ought to have.

9. Just as a silver mirror that is formed of a thin plate reflects
indistinctly and with a feeble light, while one that is substantially
made can take on a very high polish, and reflects a brilliant and
distinct image when one looks therein, so it is with stucco. When the
stuff of which it is formed is thin, it not only cracks but also soon
fades; when, however, it has a solid foundation of sand mortar and of
marble, thickly and compactly applied, it is not only brilliant after
being subjected to repeated polishings, but also reflects from its
surface a clear image of the beholder.

10. The Greek stucco-workers not only employ these methods to make their
works durable, but also construct a mortar trough, mix the lime and sand
in it, bring on a gang of men, and beat the stuff with wooden beetles,
and do not use it until it has been thus vigorously worked. Hence, some
cut slabs out of old walls and use them as panels, and the stucco of
such panels and "reflectors" has projecting bevelled edges all round it.

11. But if stucco has to be made on "wattle and daub," where there must
be cracks at the uprights and cross-sticks, because they must take in
moisture when they are daubed with the mud, and cause cracks in the
stucco when they dry and shrink, the following method will prevent this
from happening. After the whole wall has been smeared with the mud, nail
rows of reeds to it by means of "fly-nails," then spread on the mud a
second time, and, if the first rows have been nailed with the shafts
transverse, nail on a second set with the shafts vertical, and then, as
above described, spread on the sand mortar, the marble, and the whole
mass of stucco. Thus, the double series of reeds with their shafts
crossing on the walls will prevent any chipping or cracking from taking
place.

CHAPTER IV

ON STUCCO WORK IN DAMP PLACES, AND ON THE DECORATION OF DINING ROOMS

1. Having spoken of the method by which stucco work should be done in
dry situations, I shall next explain how the polished finish is to be
accomplished in places that are damp, in such a way that it can last
without defects. First, in apartments which are level with the ground,
apply a rendering coat of mortar, mixed with burnt brick instead of
sand, to a height of about three feet above the floor, and then lay on
the stucco so that those portions of it may not be injured by the
dampness. But if a wall is in a state of dampness all over, construct a
second thin wall a little way from it on the inside, at a distance
suited to circumstances, and in the space between these two walls run a
channel, at a lower level than that of the apartment, with vents to the
open air. Similarly, when the wall is brought up to the top, leave
airholes there. For if the moisture has no means of getting out by vents
at the bottom and at the top, it will not fail to spread all over the
new wall. This done, apply a rendering coat of mortar made with burnt
brick to this wall, spread on the layer of stucco, and polish it.

2. But if there is not room enough for the construction of a wall, make
channels with their vents extending to the open air. Then lay two-foot
tiles resting on the margin of the channel on one side, and on the other
side construct a foundation of pillars for them, made of eight-inch
bricks, on top of each of which the edges of two tiles may be supported,
each pillar being not more than a hand's breadth distant from the wall.
Then, above, set hooked tiles fastened to the wall from bottom to top,
carefully covering the inner sides of them with pitch so that they will
reject moisture. Both at the bottom and at the top above the vaulting
they should have airholes.

3. Then, whitewash them with lime and water so that they will not reject
the rendering coat of burnt brick. For, as they are dry from the loss of
water burnt out in the kiln, they can neither take nor hold the
rendering coat unless lime has been applied beneath it to stick the two
substances together, and make them unite. After spreading the rendering
coat upon this, apply layers of burnt brick mortar instead of sand
mortar, and finish up all the rest in the manner described above for
stucco work.

4. The decorations of the polished surfaces of the walls ought to be
treated with due regard to propriety, so as to be adapted to their
situations, and not out of keeping with differences in kind. In winter
dining rooms, neither paintings on grand subjects nor delicacy of
decoration in the cornice work of the vaultings is a serviceable kind
of design, because they are spoiled by the smoke from the fire and the
constant soot from the lamps. In these rooms there should be panels
above the dadoes, worked in black, and polished, with yellow ochre or
vermilion blocks interposed between them. After the vaulting has been
treated in the flat style, and polished, the Greek method of making
floors for use in winter dining rooms may not be unworthy of one's
notice, as being very inexpensive and yet serviceable.

5. An excavation is made below the level of the dining room to a depth
of about two feet, and, after the ground has been rammed down, the mass
of broken stones or the pounded burnt brick is spread on, at such an
inclination that it can find vents in the drain. Next, having filled in
with charcoal compactly trodden down, a mortar mixed of gravel, lime,
and ashes is spread on to a depth of half a foot. The surface having
been made true to rule and level, and smoothed off with whetstone, gives
the look of a black pavement. Hence, at their dinner parties, whatever
is poured out of the cups, or spirted from the mouth, no sooner falls
than it dries up, and the servants who wait there do not catch cold from
that kind of floor, although they may go barefoot.

CHAPTER V

THE DECADENCE OF FRESCO PAINTING

1. For the other apartments, that is, those intended to be used in
Spring, Autumn, and Summer, as well as for atriums and peristyles, the
ancients required realistic pictures of real things. A picture is, in
fact, a representation of a thing which really exists or which can
exist: for example, a man, a house, a ship, or anything else from whose
definite and actual structure copies resembling it can be taken.
Consequently the ancients who introduced polished finishings began by
representing different kinds of marble slabs in different positions, and
then cornices and blocks of yellow ochre arranged in various ways.

2. Afterwards they made such progress as to represent the forms of
buildings, and of columns, and projecting and overhanging pediments; in
their open rooms, such as exedrae, on account of the size, they depicted
the facades of scenes in the tragic, comic, or satyric style; and their
walks, on account of the great length, they decorated with a variety of
landscapes, copying the characteristics of definite spots. In these
paintings there are harbours, promontories, seashores, rivers,
fountains, straits, fanes, groves, mountains, flocks, shepherds; in some
places there are also pictures designed in the grand style, with figures
of the gods or detailed mythological episodes, or the battles at Troy,
or the wanderings of Ulysses, with landscape backgrounds, and other
subjects reproduced on similar principles from real life.

3. But those subjects which were copied from actual realities are
scorned in these days of bad taste. We now have fresco paintings of
monstrosities, rather than truthful representations of definite things.
For instance, reeds are put in the place of columns, fluted appendages
with curly leaves and volutes, instead of pediments, candelabra
supporting representations of shrines, and on top of their pediments
numerous tender stalks and volutes growing up from the roots and having
human figures senselessly seated upon them; sometimes stalks having only
half-length figures, some with human heads, others with the heads of
animals.

4. Such things do not exist and cannot exist and never have existed.
Hence, it is the new taste that has caused bad judges of poor art to
prevail over true artistic excellence. For how is it possible that a
reed should really support a roof, or a candelabrum a pediment with its
ornaments, or that such a slender, flexible thing as a stalk should
support a figure perched upon it, or that roots and stalks should
produce now flowers and now half-length figures? Yet when people see
these frauds, they find no fault with them but on the contrary are
delighted, and do not care whether any of them can exist or not. Their
understanding is darkened by decadent critical principles, so that it is
not capable of giving its approval authoritatively and on the principle
of propriety to that which really can exist. The fact is that pictures
which are unlike reality ought not to be approved, and even if they are
technically fine, this is no reason why they should offhand be judged to
be correct, if their subject is lacking in the principles of reality
carried out with no violations.

5. For instance, at Tralles, Apaturius of Alabanda designed with skilful
hand the scaena of the little theatre which is there called the [Greek:
ekklesiasterion], representing columns in it and statues, Centaurs
supporting the architraves, rotundas with round roofs on them, pediments
with overhanging returns, and cornices ornamented with lions' heads,
which are meant for nothing but the rainwater from the roofs,--and then
on top of it all he made an episcaenium in which were painted rotundas,
porticoes, half-pediments, and all the different kinds of decoration
employed in a roof. The effect of high relief in this scaena was very
attractive to all who beheld it, and they were ready to give their
approval to the work, when Licymnius the mathematician came forward and
said that (6.) the Alabandines were considered bright enough in all
matters of politics, but that on account of one slight defect, the lack
of the sense of propriety, they were believed to be unintelligent. "In
their gymnasium the statues are all pleading causes, in their forum,
throwing the discus, running, or playing ball. This disregard of
propriety in the interchange of statues appropriate to different places
has brought the state as a whole into disrepute. Let us then beware lest
this scaena of Apaturius make Alabandines or Abderites of us. Which of
you can have houses or columns or extensive pediments on top of his
tiled roof? Such things are built above the floors, not above the tiled
roofs. Therefore, if we give our approval to pictures of things which
can have no reason for existence in actual fact, we shall be voluntarily
associating ourselves with those communities which are believed to be
unintelligent on account of just such defects."

7. Apaturius did not venture to make any answer, but removed the
scaena, altered it so that it conformed to reality, and gave
satisfaction with it in its improved state. Would to God that Licymnius
could come to life again and reform the present condition of folly and
mistaken practices in fresco painting! However, it may not be out of
place to explain why this false method prevails over the truth. The fact
is that the artistic excellence which the ancients endeavoured to attain
by working hard and taking pains, is now attempted by the use of colours
and the brave show which they make, and expenditure by the employer
prevents people from missing the artistic refinements that once lent
authority to works.

8. For example, which of the ancients can be found to have used
vermilion otherwise than sparingly, like a drug? But today whole walls
are commonly covered with it everywhere. Then, too, there is malachite
green, purple, and Armenian blue. When these colours are laid on, they
present a brilliant appearance to the eye even although they are
inartistically applied, and as they are costly, they are made exceptions
in contracts, to be furnished by the employer, not by the contractor.

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