Ten Books on Architecture

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4. But if the columns are to be Ionic, let the shaft, excluding base and
capital, be divided into eight and one half parts, and let one of these
be assigned to the thickness of a column. Let the base, including the
plinth, be fixed at half the thickness, and let the proportions of the
capital be as shown in the third book. If the column is to be
Corinthian, let its shaft and base be proportioned as in the Ionic, but
its capital, as has been written in the fourth book. In the stylobates,
let the increase made there by means of the "scamilli impares" be taken
from the description written above in the third book. Let the
architraves, coronae, and all the rest be developed, in proportion to
the columns, from what has been written in the foregoing books.

5. The space in the middle, between the colonnades and open to the sky,
ought to be embellished with green things; for walking in the open air
is very healthy, particularly for the eyes, since the refined and
rarefied air that comes from green things, finding its way in because of
the physical exercise, gives a clean-cut image, and, by clearing away
the gross humours from the eyes, leaves the sight keen and the image
distinct. Besides, as the body gets warm with exercise in walking, this
air, by sucking out the humours from the frame, diminishes their
superabundance, and disperses and thus reduces that superfluity which is
more than the body can bear.

6. That this is so may be seen from the fact that misty vapours never
arise from springs of water which are under cover, nor even from watery
marshes which are underground; but in uncovered places which are open to
the sky, when the rising sun begins to act upon the world with its
heat, it brings out the vapour from damp and watery spots, and rolls it
in masses upwards. Therefore, if it appears that in places open to the
sky the more noxious humours are sucked out of the body by the air, as
they obviously are from the earth in the form of mists, I think there is
no doubt that cities should be provided with the roomiest and most
ornamented walks, laid out under the free and open sky.

7. That they may be always dry and not muddy, the following is to be
done. Let them be dug down and cleared out to the lowest possible depth.
At the right and left construct covered drains, and in their walls,
which are directed towards the walks, lay earthen pipes with their lower
ends inclined into the drains. Having finished these, fill up the place
with charcoal, and then strew sand over the walks and level them off.
Hence, on account of the porous nature of the charcoal and the insertion
of the pipes into the drains, quantities of water will be conducted
away, and the walks will thus be rendered perfectly dry and without
moisture.

8. Furthermore, our ancestors in establishing these works provided
cities with storehouses for an indispensable material. The fact is that
in sieges everything else is easier to procure than is wood. Salt can
easily be brought in beforehand; corn can be got together quickly by the
State or by individuals, and if it gives out, the defence may be
maintained on cabbage, meat, or beans; water can be had by digging
wells, or when there are sudden falls of rain, by collecting it from the
tiles. But a stock of wood, which is absolutely necessary for cooking
food, is a difficult and troublesome thing to provide; for it is slow to
gather and a good deal is consumed.

9. On such occasions, therefore, these walks are thrown open, and a
definite allowance granted to each inhabitant according to tribes. Thus
these uncovered walks insure two excellent things: first, health in time
of peace; secondly, safety in time of war. Hence, walks that are
developed on these principles, and built not only behind the "scaena"
of theatres, but also at the temples of all the gods, will be capable of
being of great use to cities.

[Illustration: _Photo. Brooklyn Institute_

THE TEPIDARIUM OF THE STABIAN BATHS AT POMPEII]

[Illustration: _Photo. Brooklyn Institute_

APODYTERIUM FOR WOMEN IN THE STABIAN BATHS AT POMPEII]

As it appears that we have given an adequate account of them, next will
follow descriptions of the arrangements of baths.

CHAPTER X

BATHS

1. In the first place, the warmest possible situation must be selected;
that is, one which faces away from the north and northeast. The rooms
for the hot and tepid baths should be lighted from the southwest, or, if
the nature of the situation prevents this, at all events from the south,
because the set time for bathing is principally from midday to evening.
We must also see to it that the hot bath rooms in the women's and men's
departments adjoin each other, and are situated in the same quarter; for
thus it will be possible that the same furnace should serve both of them
and their fittings. Three bronze cauldrons are to be set over the
furnace, one for hot, another for tepid, and the third for cold water,
placed in such positions that the amount of water which flows out of the
hot water cauldron may be replaced from that for tepid water, and in the
same way the cauldron for tepid water may be supplied from that for
cold. The arrangement must allow the semi-cylinders for the bath basins
to be heated from the same furnace.

2. The hanging floors of the hot bath rooms are to be constructed as
follows. First the surface of the ground should be laid with tiles a
foot and a half square, sloping towards the furnace in such a way that,
if a ball is thrown in, it cannot stop inside but must return of itself
to the furnace room; thus the heat of the fire will more readily spread
under the hanging flooring. Upon them, pillars made of eight-inch bricks
are built, and set at such a distance apart that two-foot tiles may be
used to cover them. These pillars should be two feet in height, laid
with clay mixed with hair, and covered on top with the two-foot tiles
which support the floor.

[Illustration: The Stabian Baths at Pompeii

S, S. Shops. B. Private Baths. A-T. Men's Bath. A'-T'. Women's Baths. E,
E'. Entrances. A, A'. Apodyteria. F. Frigidarium. T, T'. Tepidarium. C,
C. Caldarium. K, K, K. Kettles in furnace room. P. Piscina.]

3. The vaulted ceilings will be more serviceable if built of masonry;
but if they are of framework, they should have tile work on the under
side, to be constructed as follows. Let iron bars or arcs be made, and
hang them to the framework by means of iron hooks set as close together
as possible; and let these bars or arcs be placed at such distances
apart that each pair of them may support and carry an unflanged tile.
Thus the entire vaulting will be completely supported on iron. These
vaults should have the joints on their upper side daubed with clay mixed
with hair, and their under side, facing the floor, should first be
plastered with pounded tile mixed with lime, and then covered with
polished stucco in relief or smooth. Vaults in hot bath rooms will be
more serviceable if they are doubled; for then the moisture from the
heat will not be able to spoil the timber in the framework, but will
merely circulate between the two vaults.

4. The size of the baths must depend upon the number of the population.
The rooms should be thus proportioned: let their breadth be one third of
their length, excluding the niches for the washbowl and the bath basin.
The washbowl ought without fail to be placed under a window, so that the
shadows of those who stand round it may not obstruct the light. Niches
for washbowls must be made so roomy that when the first comers have
taken their places, the others who are waiting round may have proper
standing room. The bath basin should be not less than six feet broad
from the wall to the edge, the lower step and the "cushion" taking up
two feet of this space.

5. The Laconicum and other sweating baths must adjoin the tepid room,
and their height to the bottom of the curved dome should be equal to
their width. Let an aperture be left in the middle of the dome with a
bronze disc hanging from it by chains. By raising and lowering it, the
temperature of the sweating bath can be regulated. The chamber itself
ought, as it seems, to be circular, so that the force of the fire and
heat may spread evenly from the centre all round the circumference.

CHAPTER XI

THE PALAESTRA

1. Next, although the building of palaestrae is not usual in Italy, I
think it best to set forth the traditional way, and to show how they are
constructed among the Greeks. The square or oblong peristyle in a
palaestra should be so formed that the circuit of it makes a walk of two
stadia, a distance which the Greeks call the [Greek: diaulos]. Let three
of its colonnades be single, but let the fourth, which is on the south
side, be double, so that when there is bad weather accompanied by wind,
the drops of rain may not be able to reach the interior.

2. In the three colonnades construct roomy recesses (A) with seats in
them, where philosophers, rhetoricians, and others who delight in
learning may sit and converse. In the double colonnade let the rooms be
arranged thus: the young men's hall (B) in the middle; this is a very
spacious recess (exedra) with seats in it, and it should be one third
longer than it is broad. At the right, the bag room (C); then next, the
dust room (D); beyond the dust room, at the corner of the colonnade, the
cold washing room (E), which the Greeks call [Greek: loutron]. At the
left of the young men's hall is the anointing room (F); then, next to
the anointing room, the cold bath room (G), and beyond that a passage
into the furnace room (H) at the corner of the colonnade. Next, but
inside and on a line with the cold bath room, put the vaulted sweating
bath (I), its length twice its breadth, and having at the ends on one
side a Laconicum (K), proportioned in the same manner as above
described, and opposite the Laconicum the warm washing room (L). Inside
a palaestra, the peristyle ought to be laid out as described above.

3. But on the outside, let three colonnades be arranged, one as you
leave the peristyle and two at the right and left, with running-tracks
in them. That one of them which faces the north should be a double
colonnade of very ample breadth, while the other should be single, and
so constructed that on the sides next the walls and the side along the
columns it may have edges, serving as paths, of not less than ten feet,
with the space between them sunken, so that steps are necessary in going
down from the edges a foot and a half to the plane, which plane should
be not less than twelve feet wide. Thus people walking round on the
edges will not be interfered with by the anointed who are exercising.

[Illustration: I. THE PALAESTRA AT OLYMPIA; II. THE GREEK PALAESTRA
ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS]

4. This kind of colonnade is called among the Greeks [Greek: xystos],
because athletes during the winter season exercise in covered running
tracks. Next to this "xystus" and to the double colonnade should be laid
out the uncovered walks which the Greeks term [Greek: paradromides] and
our people "xysta," into which, in fair weather during the winter, the
athletes come out from the "xystus" for exercise. The "xysta" ought to
be so constructed that there may be plantations between the two
colonnades, or groves of plane trees, with walks laid out in them among
the trees and resting places there, made of "opus signinum." Behind the
"xystus" a stadium, so designed that great numbers of people may have
plenty of room to look on at the contests between the athletes.

I have now described all that seemed necessary for the proper
arrangement of things within the city walls.

CHAPTER XII

HARBOURS, BREAKWATERS, AND SHIPYARDS

1. The subject of the usefulness of harbours is one which I must not
omit, but must explain by what means ships are sheltered in them from
storms. If their situation has natural advantages, with projecting capes
or promontories which curve or return inwards by their natural
conformation, such harbours are obviously of the greatest service. Round
them, of course, colonnades or shipyards must be built, or passages from
the colonnades to the business quarters, and towers must be set up on
both sides, from which chains can be drawn across by machinery.

2. But if we have a situation without natural advantages, and unfit to
shelter ships from storms, it is obvious that we must proceed as
follows. If there is no river in the neighbourhood, but if there can be
a roadstead on one side, then, let the advances be made from the other
side by means of walls or embankments, and let the enclosing harbour be
thus formed. Walls which are to be under water should be constructed as
follows. Take the powder which comes from the country extending from
Cumae to the promontory of Minerva, and mix it in the mortar trough in
the proportion of two to one.

3. Then, in the place previously determined, a cofferdam, with its sides
formed of oaken stakes with ties between them, is to be driven down into
the water and firmly propped there; then, the lower surface inside,
under the water, must be levelled off and dredged, working from beams
laid across; and finally, concrete from the mortar trough--the stuff
having been mixed as prescribed above--must be heaped up until the empty
space which was within the cofferdam is filled up by the wall. This,
however, is possessed as a gift of nature by such places as have been
described above.

But if by reason of currents or the assaults of the open sea the props
cannot hold the cofferdam together, then, let a platform of the greatest
possible strength be constructed, beginning on the ground itself or on a
substructure; and let the platform be constructed with a level surface
for less than half its extent, while the rest, which is close to the
beach, slopes down and out.

4. Then, on the water's edge and at the sides of the platform, let
marginal walls be constructed, about one and one half feet thick and
brought up to a level with the surface above mentioned; next, let the
sloping part be filled in with sand and levelled off with the marginal
wall and the surface of the platform. Then, upon this level surface
construct a block as large as is required, and when it is finished,
leave it for not less than two months to dry. Then, cut away the
marginal wall which supports the sand. Thus, the sand will be undermined
by the waves, and this will cause the block to fall into the sea. By
this method, repeated as often as necessary, an advance into the water
can be made.

5. But in places where this powder is not found, the following method
must be employed. A cofferdam with double sides, composed of charred
stakes fastened together with ties, should be constructed in the
appointed place, and clay in wicker baskets made of swamp rushes should
be packed in among the props. After this has been well packed down and
filled in as closely as possible, set up your water-screws, wheels, and
drums, and let the space now bounded by the enclosure be emptied and
dried. Then, dig out the bottom within the enclosure. If it proves to be
of earth, it must be cleared out and dried till you come to solid bottom
and for a space wider than the wall which is to be built upon it, and
then filled in with masonry consisting of rubble, lime, and sand.

6. But if the place proves to be soft, the bottom must be staked with
piles made of charred alder or olive wood, and then filled in with
charcoal as has been prescribed in the case of the foundations of
theatres and the city wall. Finally, build the wall of dimension stone,
with the bond stones as long as possible, so that particularly the
stones in the middle may be held together by the joints. Then, fill the
inside of the wall with broken stone or masonry. It will thus be
possible for even a tower to be built upon it.

7. When all this is finished, the general rule for shipyards will be to
build them facing the north. Southern exposures from their heat produce
rot, the wood worm, shipworms, and all sorts of other destructive
creatures, and strengthen and keep them alive. And these buildings must
by no means be constructed of wood, for fear of fire. As for their size,
no definite limit need be set, but they must be built to suit the
largest type of ship, so that if even larger ships are hauled up, they
may find plenty of room there.

I have described in this book the construction and completion of all
that I could remember as necessary for general use in the public places
of cities. In the following book I shall consider private houses, their
conveniences, and symmetrical proportions.

BOOK VI

INTRODUCTION

1. It is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being
shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed
geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: "Let
us be of good cheer, for I see the traces of man." With that he made for
the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to
discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him,
so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those
who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life.
When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him
what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that
children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that
could swim with them even out of a shipwreck.

2. These are indeed the true supports of life, and neither Fortune's
adverse gale, nor political revolution, nor ravages of war can do them
any harm. Developing the same idea, Theophrastus, urging men to acquire
learning rather than to put their trust in money, states the case thus:
"The man of learning is the only person in the world who is neither a
stranger when in a foreign land, nor friendless when he has lost his
intimates and relatives; on the contrary, he is a citizen of every
country, and can fearlessly look down upon the troublesome accidents of
fortune. But he who thinks himself entrenched in defences not of
learning but of luck, moves in slippery paths, struggling through life
unsteadily and insecurely."

3. And Epicurus, in much the same way, says that the wise owe little to
fortune; all that is greatest and essential is under the direction of
the thinking power of the mind and the understanding. Many other
philosophers have said the same thing. Likewise the poets who wrote the
ancient comedies in Greek have expressed the same sentiments in their
verses on the stage: for example, Eucrates, Chionides, Aristophanes, and
with them Alexis in particular, who says that the Athenians ought to be
praised for the reason that, while the laws of all Greeks require the
maintenance of parents by their children, the laws of the Athenians
require this only in the case of those who have educated their children
in the arts. All the gifts which fortune bestows she can easily take
away; but education, when combined with intelligence, never fails, but
abides steadily on to the very end of life.

4. Hence, I am very much obliged and infinitely grateful to my parents
for their approval of this Athenian law, and for having taken care that
I should be taught an art, and that of a sort which cannot be brought to
perfection without learning and a liberal education in all branches of
instruction. Thanks, therefore, to the attention of my parents and the
instruction given by my teachers, I obtained a wide range of knowledge,
and by the pleasure which I take in literary and artistic subjects, and
in the writing of treatises, I have acquired intellectual possessions
whose chief fruits are these thoughts: that superfluity is useless, and
that not to feel the want of anything is true riches. There may be some
people, however, who deem all this of no consequence, and think that the
wise are those who have plenty of money. Hence it is that very many, in
pursuit of that end, take upon themselves impudent assurance, and attain
notoriety and wealth at the same time.

5. But for my part, Caesar, I have never been eager to make money by my
art, but have gone on the principle that slender means and a good
reputation are preferable to wealth and disrepute. For this reason, only
a little celebrity has followed; but still, my hope is that, with the
publication of these books, I shall become known even to posterity. And
it is not to be wondered at that I am so generally unknown. Other
architects go about and ask for opportunities to practise their
profession; but I have been taught by my instructors that it is the
proper thing to undertake a charge only after being asked, and not to
ask for it; since a gentleman will blush with shame at petitioning for
a thing that arouses suspicion. It is in fact those who can grant
favours that are courted, not those who receive them. What are we to
think must be the suspicions of a man who is asked to allow his private
means to be expended in order to please a petitioner? Must he not
believe that the thing is to be done for the profit and advantage of
that individual?

6. Hence it was that the ancients used to entrust their work in the
first place to architects of good family, and next inquired whether they
had been properly educated, believing that one ought to trust in the
honour of a gentleman rather than in the assurance of impudence. And the
architects themselves would teach none but their own sons or kinsmen,
and trained them to be good men, who could be trusted without hesitation
in matters of such importance.

But when I see that this grand art is boldly professed by the uneducated
and the unskilful, and by men who, far from being acquainted with
architecture, have no knowledge even of the carpenter's trade, I can
find nothing but praise for those householders who, in the confidence of
learning, are emboldened to build for themselves. Their judgment is
that, if they must trust to inexperienced persons, it is more becoming
to them to use up a good round sum at their own pleasure than at that of
a stranger.

7. Nobody, therefore, attempts to practise any other art in his own
home--as, for instance, the shoemaker's, or the fuller's, or any other
of the easier kinds--but only architecture, and this is because the
professionals do not possess the genuine art but term themselves
architects falsely. For these reasons I have thought proper to compose
most carefully a complete treatise on architecture and its principles,
believing that it will be no unacceptable gift to all the world. In the
fifth book I have said what I had to say about the convenient
arrangement of public works; in this I shall set forth the theoretical
principles and the symmetrical proportions of private houses.

CHAPTER I

ON CLIMATE AS DETERMINING THE STYLE OF THE HOUSE

1. If our designs for private houses are to be correct, we must at the
outset take note of the countries and climates in which they are built.
One style of house seems appropriate to build in Egypt, another in
Spain, a different kind in Pontus, one still different in Rome, and so
on with lands and countries of other characteristics. This is because
one part of the earth is directly under the sun's course, another is far
away from it, while another lies midway between these two. Hence, as the
position of the heaven with regard to a given tract on the earth leads
naturally to different characteristics, owing to the inclination of the
circle of the zodiac and the course of the sun, it is obvious that
designs for houses ought similarly to conform to the nature of the
country and to diversities of climate.

2. In the north, houses should be entirely roofed over and sheltered as
much as possible, not in the open, though having a warm exposure. But on
the other hand, where the force of the sun is great in the southern
countries that suffer from heat, houses must be built more in the open
and with a northern or north-eastern exposure. Thus we may amend by art
what nature, if left to herself, would mar. In other situations, also,
we must make modifications to correspond to the position of the heaven
and its effects on climate.

3. These effects are noticeable and discernible not only in things in
nature, but they also are observable in the limbs and bodies of entire
races. In places on which the sun throws out its heat in moderation, it
keeps human bodies in their proper condition, and where its path is very
close at hand, it parches them up, and burns out and takes away the
proportion of moisture which they ought to possess. But, on the other
hand, in the cold regions that are far away from the south, the
moisture is not drawn out by hot weather, but the atmosphere is full of
dampness which diffuses moisture into the system, and makes the frame
larger and the pitch of the voice deeper. This is also the reason why
the races that are bred in the north are of vast height, and have fair
complexions, straight red hair, grey eyes, and a great deal of blood,
owing to the abundance of moisture and the coolness of the atmosphere.

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