Ten Books on Architecture

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VITRUVIUS

THE TEN BOOKS ON ARCHITECTURE

TRANSLATED BY
MORRIS HICKY MORGAN, PH.D., LL.D.
LATE PROFESSOR OF CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY
IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND ORIGINAL DESIGNS
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
HERBERT LANGFORD WARREN, A.M.
NELSON ROBINSON JR. PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE
IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1914
COPYRIGHT, HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

* * * * *

PREFACE

During the last years of his life, Professor Morgan had devoted much
time and energy to the preparation of a translation of Vitruvius, which
he proposed to supplement with a revised text, illustrations, and notes.
He had completed the translation, with the exception of the last four
chapters of the tenth book, and had discussed, with Professor Warren,
the illustrations intended for the first six books of the work; the
notes had not been arranged or completed, though many of them were
outlined in the manuscript, or the intention to insert them indicated.
The several books of the translation, so far as it was completed, had
been read to a little group of friends, consisting of Professors Sheldon
and Kittredge, and myself, and had received our criticism, which had, at
times, been utilized in the revision of the work.

After the death of Professor Morgan, in spite of my obvious incompetency
from a technical point of view, I undertook, at the request of his
family, to complete the translation, and to see the book through the
press. I must, therefore, assume entire responsibility for the
translation of the tenth book, beginning with chapter thirteen, and
further responsibility for necessary changes made by me in the earlier
part of the translation, changes which, in no case, affect any theory
held by Professor Morgan, but which involve mainly the adoption of
simpler forms of statement, or the correction of obvious oversights.

The text followed is that of Valentine Rose in his second edition
(Leipzig, 1899), and the variations from this text are, with a few
exceptions which are indicated in the footnotes, in the nature of a
return to the consensus of the manuscript readings.

The illustrations in the first six books are believed to be
substantially in accord with the wishes of Professor Morgan. The
suggestions for illustrations in the later books were incomplete, and
did not indicate, in all cases, with sufficient definiteness to allow
them to be executed, the changes from conventional plans and designs
intended by the translator. It has, therefore, been decided to include
in this part of the work only those illustrations which are known to
have had the full approval of Professor Morgan. The one exception to
this principle is the reproduction of a rough model of the Ram of
Hegetor, constructed by me on the basis of the measurements given by
Vitruvius and Athenaeus.

It does not seem to me necessary or even advisable to enter into a long
discussion as to the date of Vitruvius, which has been assigned to
various periods from the time of Augustus to the early centuries of our
era. Professor Morgan, in several articles in the _Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology_, and in the _Proceedings of the American Academy_,
all of which have been reprinted in a volume of _Addresses and Essays_
(New York, 1909), upheld the now generally accepted view that Vitruvius
wrote in the time of Augustus, and furnished conclusive evidence that
nothing in his language is inconsistent with this view. In revising the
translation, I met with one bit of evidence for a date before the end of
the reign of Nero which I have never seen adduced. In viii, 3, 21, the
kingdom of Cottius is mentioned, the name depending, it is true, on an
emendation, but one which has been universally accepted since it was
first proposed in 1513. The kingdom of Cottius was made into a Roman
province by Nero (cf. Suetonius, _Nero_, 18), and it is inconceivable
that any Roman writer subsequently referred to it as a kingdom.

It does seem necessary to add a few words about the literary merits of
Vitruvius in this treatise, and about Professor Morgan's views as to the
general principles to be followed in the translation.

Vitruvius was not a great literary personage, ambitious as he was to
appear in that character. As Professor Morgan has aptly said, "he has
all the marks of one unused to composition, to whom writing is a painful
task." In his hand the measuring-rod was a far mightier implement than
the pen. His turgid and pompous rhetoric displays itself in the
introductions to the different books, where his exaggerated effort to
introduce some semblance of style into his commonplace lectures on the
noble principles which should govern the conduct of the architect, or
into the prosaic lists of architects and writers on architecture, is
everywhere apparent. Even in the more technical portions of his work, a
like conscious effort may be detected, and, at the same time, a lack of
confidence in his ability to express himself in unmistakable language.
He avoids periodic sentences, uses only the simpler subjunctive
constructions, repeats the antecedent in relative clauses, and, not
infrequently, adopts a formal language closely akin to that of
specifications and contracts, the style with which he was, naturally,
most familiar. He ends each book with a brief summary, almost a formula,
somewhat like a sigh of relief, in which the reader unconsciously
shares. At times his meaning is ambiguous, not because of grammatical
faults, which are comparatively few and unimportant, but because, when
he does attempt a periodic sentence, he becomes involved, and finds it
difficult to extricate himself.

Some of these peculiarities and crudities of expression Professor Morgan
purposely imitated, because of his conviction that a translation should
not merely reproduce the substance of a book, but should also give as
clear a picture as possible of the original, of its author, and of the
working of his mind. The translation is intended, then, to be faithful
and exact, but it deliberately avoids any attempt to treat the language
of Vitruvius as though it were Ciceronian, or to give a false impression
of conspicuous literary merit in a work which is destitute of that
quality. The translator had, however, the utmost confidence in the
sincerity of Vitruvius and in the serious purpose of his treatise on
architecture.

To those who have liberally given their advice and suggestions in
response to requests from Professor Morgan, it is impossible for me to
make adequate acknowledgment. Their number is so great, and my knowledge
of the indebtedness in individual cases is so small, that each must be
content with the thought of the full and generous acknowledgment which
he would have received had Professor Morgan himself written this
preface.

Personally I am under the greatest obligations to Professor H. L.
Warren, who has freely given both assistance and criticism; to Professor
G. L. Kittredge, who has read with me most of the proof; to the Syndics
of the Harvard University Press, who have made possible the publication
of the work; and to the members of the Visiting Committee of the
Department of the Classics and the classmates of Professor Morgan, who
have generously supplied the necessary funds for the illustrations.

ALBERT A. HOWARD.

CONTENTS

BOOK I

PREFACE 3

THE EDUCATION OF THE ARCHITECT 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE 13

THE DEPARTMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE 16

THE SITE OF A CITY 17

THE CITY WALLS 21

THE DIRECTIONS OF THE STREETS; WITH REMARKS ON THE WINDS 24

THE SITES FOR PUBLIC BUILDINGS 31

BOOK II

INTRODUCTION 35

THE ORIGIN OF THE DWELLING HOUSE 38

ON THE PRIMORDIAL SUBSTANCE ACCORDING TO THE PHYSICISTS 42

BRICK 42

SAND 44

LIME 45

POZZOLANA 46

STONE 49

METHODS OF BUILDING WALLS 51

TIMBER 58

HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND FIR 64

BOOK III

INTRODUCTION 69

ON SYMMETRY: IN TEMPLES AND IN THE HUMAN BODY 72

CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES 75

THE PROPORTIONS OF INTERCOLUMNIATIONS AND OF COLUMNS 78

THE FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURES OF TEMPLES 86

PROPORTIONS OF THE BASE, CAPITALS, AND ENTABLATURE IN THE
IONIC ORDER 90

BOOK IV

INTRODUCTION 101

THE ORIGINS OF THE THREE ORDERS, AND THE PROPORTIONS OF THE
CORINTHIAN CAPITAL 102

THE ORNAMENTS OF THE ORDERS 107

PROPORTIONS OF DORIC TEMPLES 109

THE CELLA AND PRONAOS 114

HOW THE TEMPLE SHOULD FACE 116

THE DOORWAYS OF TEMPLES 117

TUSCAN TEMPLES 120

CIRCULAR TEMPLES AND OTHER VARIETIES 122

ALTARS 125

BOOK V

INTRODUCTION 129

THE FORUM AND BASILICA 131

THE TREASURY, PRISON, AND SENATE HOUSE 137

THE THEATRE: ITS SITE, FOUNDATIONS, AND ACOUSTICS 137

HARMONICS 139

SOUNDING VESSELS IN THE THEATRE 143

PLAN OF THE THEATRE 146

GREEK THEATRES 151

ACOUSTICS OF THE SITE OF A THEATRE 153

COLONNADES AND WALKS 154

BATHS 157

THE PALAESTRA 159

HARBOURS, BREAKWATERS, AND SHIPYARDS 162

BOOK VI

INTRODUCTION 167

ON CLIMATE AS DETERMINING THE STYLE OF THE HOUSE 170

SYMMETRY, AND MODIFICATIONS IN IT TO SUIT THE SITE 174

PROPORTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL ROOMS 176

THE PROPER EXPOSURES OF THE DIFFERENT ROOMS 180

HOW THE ROOMS SHOULD BE SUITED TO THE STATION OF THE
OWNER 181

THE FARMHOUSE 183

THE GREEK HOUSE 185

ON FOUNDATIONS AND SUBSTRUCTURES 189

BOOK VII

INTRODUCTION 195

FLOORS 202

THE SLAKING OF LIME FOR STUCCO 204

VAULTINGS AND STUCCO WORK 205

ON STUCCO WORK IN DAMP PLACES, AND ON THE DECORATION OF
DINING ROOMS 208

THE DECADENCE OF FRESCO PAINTING 210

MARBLE FOR USE IN STUCCO 213

NATURAL COLOURS 214

CINNABAR AND QUICKSILVER 215

CINNABAR (_continued_) 216

ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. BLACK 217

BLUE. BURNT OCHRE 218

WHITE LEAD, VERDIGRIS, AND ARTIFICIAL SANDARACH 219

PURPLE 219

SUBSTITUTES FOR PURPLE, YELLOW OCHRE, MALACHITE GREEN, AND
INDIGO 220

BOOK VIII

INTRODUCTION 225

HOW TO FIND WATER 227

RAINWATER 229

VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT WATERS 232

TESTS OF GOOD WATER 242

LEVELLING AND LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS 242

AQUEDUCTS, WELLS, AND CISTERNS 244

BOOK IX

INTRODUCTION 251

THE ZODIAC AND THE PLANETS 257

THE PHASES OF THE MOON 262

THE COURSE OF THE SUN THROUGH THE TWELVE SIGNS 264

THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS 265

THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS 267

ASTROLOGY AND WEATHER PROGNOSTICS 269

THE ANALEMMA AND ITS APPLICATIONS 270

SUNDIALS AND WATER CLOCKS 273

BOOK X

INTRODUCTION 281

MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS 283

HOISTING MACHINES 285

THE ELEMENTS OF MOTION 290

ENGINES FOR RAISING WATER 293

WATER WHEELS AND WATER MILLS 294

THE WATER SCREW 295

THE PUMP OF CTESIBIUS 297

THE WATER ORGAN 299

THE HODOMETER 301

CATAPULTS OR SCORPIONES 303

BALLISTAE 305

THE STRINGING AND TUNING OF CATAPULTS 308

SIEGE MACHINES 309

THE TORTOISE 311

HEGETOR'S TORTOISE 312

MEASURES OF DEFENCE 315

NOTE ON SCAMILLI IMPARES 320

INDEX 321

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

CARYATIDES FROM TREASURY OF CNIDIANS, DELPHI 6

CARYATIDES OF ERECHTHEUM, ATHENS 6

CARYATID IN VILLA ALBANI, ROME 6

CARYATIDES 7

PERSIANS 9

CONSTRUCTION OF CITY WALLS 23

TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS 26

DIAGRAM OF THE WINDS 29

DIAGRAM OF DIRECTIONS OF STREETS 30

VITRUVIUS' BRICK-BOND 44

TRAVERTINE QUARRIES, ROMAN CAMPAGNA 49

EXAMPLE OF OPUS INCERTUM, CIRCULAR TEMPLE, TIVOLI 51

OPUS RETICULATUM, THERMAE OF HADRIAN'S VILLA, TIVOLI 52

EXAMPLE OF OPUS RETICULATUM, DOORWAY OF STOA POECILE, HADRIAN'S
VILLA 52

MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS, RESTORED 54

CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES ACCORDING TO ARRANGEMENTS OF COLONNADES 76

HYPAETHRAL TEMPLE OF VITRUVIUS COMPARED WITH PARTHENON AND
TEMPLE OF APOLLO NEAR MILETUS 77

CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPLES ACCORDING TO INTERCOLUMNIATION 79

EUSTYLE TEMPLE OF VITRUVIUS COMPARED WITH TEMPLE OF TEOS 81

VITRUVIUS' RULES FOR DIAMETER AND HEIGHT OF COLUMNS COMPARED
WITH ACTUAL EXAMPLES 83

DIMINUTION OF COLUMNS IN RELATION TO DIMENSIONS OF HEIGHT 85

ENTASIS OF COLUMNS 87

FRA GIOCONDO'S IDEA OF "SCAMILLI IMPARES" 89

IONIC ORDER ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS COMPARED WITH ORDER OF
MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 91

COMPARISON OF IONIC ORDER ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS WITH ACTUAL
EXAMPLES AND WITH VIGNOLA'S ORDER 95

BASILICA AT POMPEII 104

CORINTHIAN CAPITAL OF VITRUVIUS COMPARED WITH MONUMENTS 105

VITRUVIUS' DORIC ORDER COMPARED WITH TEMPLE AT CORI AND THEATRE
OF MARCELLUS 111

VITRUVIUS' TEMPLE PLAN COMPARED WITH ACTUAL EXAMPLES 115

VITRUVIUS' RULE FOR DOORWAYS COMPARED WITH TWO EXAMPLES 119

TUSCAN TEMPLE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 121

CIRCULAR TEMPLE, TIVOLI 123

MAISON CARREE, NIMES 123

PLAN OF TEMPLE, TIVOLI 123

PLAN OF TEMPLE OF VESTA, ROME 123

PLAN OF CIRCULAR TEMPLE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 124

FORUM, TIMGAD 131

FORUM, POMPEII 133

PLAN OF BASILICA, POMPEII 134

VITRUVIUS' BASILICA, FANO 135

ROMAN THEATRE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 147

THEATRE AT ASPENDUS 149

THEATRE PORTICO ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 152

TEPIDARIUM OF STABIAN BATHS, POMPEII 157

APODYTERIUM FOR WOMEN, STABIAN BATHS, POMPEII 157

STABIAN BATHS, POMPEII 158

PALAESTRA, OLYMPIA, AND GREEK PALAESTRA ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 161

PLANS OF HOUSES, POMPEII 176

PLAN OF HOUSE OF SILVER WEDDING, POMPEII 177

PLAN OF TYPICAL ROMAN HOUSE 178

PERISTYLE OF HOUSE OF THE VETTII, POMPEII 179

PLAN OF HOUSE OF THE VETTII, POMPEII 179

PLAN OF VILLA RUSTICA, NEAR POMPEII 183

PLAN OF VITRUVIUS' GREEK HOUSE 186

PLAN OF GREEK HOUSE, DELOS 187

PLAN OF GREEK HOUSE DISCOVERED AT PERGAMUM 188

RETAINING WALLS 191

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ANALEMMA 271

CONSTRUCTION OF WATER SCREW 295

WATER SCREW 296

HEGETOR'S RAM AND TORTOISE 312

1. From sixteenth century MS.

2. From model by A. A. Howard.

* * * * *

VITRUVIUS

* * * * *

BOOK I

PREFACE

1. While your divine intelligence and will, Imperator Caesar, were
engaged in acquiring the right to command the world, and while your
fellow citizens, when all their enemies had been laid low by your
invincible valour, were glorying in your triumph and victory,--while all
foreign nations were in subjection awaiting your beck and call, and the
Roman people and senate, released from their alarm, were beginning to be
guided by your most noble conceptions and policies, I hardly dared, in
view of your serious employments, to publish my writings and long
considered ideas on architecture, for fear of subjecting myself to your
displeasure by an unseasonable interruption.

2. But when I saw that you were giving your attention not only to the
welfare of society in general and to the establishment of public order,
but also to the providing of public buildings intended for utilitarian
purposes, so that not only should the State have been enriched with
provinces by your means, but that the greatness of its power might
likewise be attended with distinguished authority in its public
buildings, I thought that I ought to take the first opportunity to lay
before you my writings on this theme. For in the first place it was this
subject which made me known to your father, to whom I was devoted on
account of his great qualities. After the council of heaven gave him a
place in the dwellings of immortal life and transferred your father's
power to your hands, my devotion continuing unchanged as I remembered
him inclined me to support you. And so with Marcus Aurelius, Publius
Minidius, and Gnaeus Cornelius, I was ready to supply and repair
ballistae, scorpiones, and other artillery, and I have received rewards
for good service with them. After your first bestowal of these upon me,
you continued to renew them on the recommendation of your sister.

3. Owing to this favour I need have no fear of want to the end of my
life, and being thus laid under obligation I began to write this work
for you, because I saw that you have built and are now building
extensively, and that in future also you will take care that our public
and private buildings shall be worthy to go down to posterity by the
side of your other splendid achievements. I have drawn up definite rules
to enable you, by observing them, to have personal knowledge of the
quality both of existing buildings and of those which are yet to be
constructed. For in the following books I have disclosed all the
principles of the art.

CHAPTER I

THE EDUCATION OF THE ARCHITECT

1. The architect should be equipped with knowledge of many branches of
study and varied kinds of learning, for it is by his judgement that all
work done by the other arts is put to test. This knowledge is the child
of practice and theory. Practice is the continuous and regular exercise
of employment where manual work is done with any necessary material
according to the design of a drawing. Theory, on the other hand, is the
ability to demonstrate and explain the productions of dexterity on the
principles of proportion.

2. It follows, therefore, that architects who have aimed at acquiring
manual skill without scholarship have never been able to reach a
position of authority to correspond to their pains, while those who
relied only upon theories and scholarship were obviously hunting the
shadow, not the substance. But those who have a thorough knowledge of
both, like men armed at all points, have the sooner attained their
object and carried authority with them.

3. In all matters, but particularly in architecture, there are these two
points:--the thing signified, and that which gives it its significance.
That which is signified is the subject of which we may be speaking; and
that which gives significance is a demonstration on scientific
principles. It appears, then, that one who professes himself an
architect should be well versed in both directions. He ought, therefore,
to be both naturally gifted and amenable to instruction. Neither natural
ability without instruction nor instruction without natural ability can
make the perfect artist. Let him be educated, skilful with the pencil,
instructed in geometry, know much history, have followed the
philosophers with attention, understand music, have some knowledge of
medicine, know the opinions of the jurists, and be acquainted with
astronomy and the theory of the heavens.

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