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JAPAN'S AGRICULTURE

Japan being of volcanic origin, much of its soil is unfit for
cultivation. The total productive area amounts to less than thirty per
cent., and even of this only a small portion is capable of being
tilled by modern methods. At present only twelve per cent. of the
whole surface of the country is devoted to agriculture, even including
pasturing. There is, however, but little pasturing, and the principal
implement of cultivation is the spade. The modern plough is unknown.
But manure (principally domestic manure and fish refuse) is very
generously used, and by this means the returns are abundant. The
principal food crop is RICE. Other food crops are wheat, barley, and
the soya bean, but these not numerously so. The principal cultivated
products for purposes of commerce are the mulberry tree (for
supporting the silkworm), the tea plant, the lacquer tree, and the
camphor tree. Rice also is grown for export as well as for home
consumption, and COTTON is very largely grown for home manufacture. No
milk, butter, or cheese is produced, scarcely any meat, no wood, and
scarcely any leather. (For boots and shoes paper is used instead of
leather.) Of cattle there are only 1,000,000, as compared with
10,000,000 in the British Isles, although the population of Japan is
considerably the greater. Of horses there are 1,500,000, and the
raising of horses is much encouraged by the government, but
principally for military purposes. Horses, indeed, are but little
employed. In cities, for purposes of carriage and cartage, men are
used instead of horses. Even in rural districts horses are unknown for
farming purposes, and not even the hand-cart or wheelbarrow is used.
Everything is carried. Fruit is much raised,--oranges, apples,
walnuts, plums, peaches, and grapes,--but Japanese fruits are of very
inferior quality. FLOWERS are raised everywhere in great variety and
in great abundance, and the chrysanthemum is the emblem of the country
and is used on postage stamps.

JAPAN'S MANUFACTURES: THEIR FUTURE POSSIBILITIES

The future of Japan depends upon its MANUFACTURES, but these also are
not without their difficulties. The mineral wealth of the country is
very great, principally in COAL and IRON. On the northern island alone
(Yezo) the coal deposits are two thirds those of all Great Britain.
Unfortunately, however, owing to the mountainous character of the
country, railways in Japan are difficult to construct, and the
transportation of coal or of ore is difficult and expensive. As the
coal deposits and iron deposits are not near together charcoal has
been used for smelting purposes. Iron, therefore, so far, has not been
produced profitably, and its production has decreased. But silver is
mined abundantly, and also KAOLIN, or the raw material used in the
manufacture of the beautiful porcelain of the country. Copper and
antimony are also large articles of export. The principal manufactures
of Japan as yet are the TEXTILES, especially SILK and COTTON. In
these modern methods are used, although so far the productions of the
native domestic looms are superior to those of the factory looms. The
production of textiles by machinery has increased fourfold in ten
years, and now amounts to about $40,000,000 annually. This, however,
is not a large amount, being less than the textile production of any
important state in Europe, even Switzerland, or Sweden and Norway, and
is only one twentieth that of the United States. Until recently the
factory owner in Japan has had the advantage of cheap labour. But the
Japanese artisan is also becoming "modernised," and is now demanding
higher wages, and enforcing his demand by "strikes." And for all their
deftness in domestic manufacture Japanese workmen are not yet as
skilful in machine labour as British or American workmen. It follows,
therefore, that textile manufacturing in Japan, especially the
manufacture of cotton and wool, is not yet out of its tentative or
probationary stage. But Japan, having the advantage of an extensive
home market for cotton goods (like the Chinese, the Japanese common
people wear cotton garments all the year round, in winter padding them
for warmth), and having the raw material at her own door (she already
grows a large proportion of all the raw cotton she needs), and having,
too, an abundance of coal at hand, must needs become a great
cotton-manufacturing country. The same conditions hold with regard to
the possibilities of Japan's silk manufactures.

POSSIBILITIES OF INCREASED FOREIGN TRADE WITH JAPAN

As in the case of China, the possibilities of increased trade with
Japan lie principally in WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES and in BREADSTUFFS. In
addition there is a fair chance of increased trade in metal
manufactures. The use of woollen garments in Japan in winter is
extending even to the middle and working classes. And inasmuch as the
country does not raise sheep, and is, indeed, not well able to raise
sheep, such woollen clothing, woollen cloth, or raw wool as is used
must be imported. Hitherto the woollen manufactures which have been
established in the country have not been very successful, and the
probability is that Japan's import trade in woollen clothing and
woollen cloths will increase year by year. Similarly, from the fact
that the agriculture of the country is not adapted to the growth of
wheat, nor seems ever likely to be so adapted, and also from the fact
that both the higher and the middle classes of Japan are rapidly
adopting European and American habits of living, it is very probable
that the importation of wheat and wheat flour into Japan will also
continue to increase year by year. And from the difficulty there is of
smelting iron cheaply it is probable that the importation of iron and
iron goods (which in raw iron, iron and steel rails, iron small wares
and nails, spinning and other machinery, and steel ships, already
amounts to $8,000,000 a year) is likewise likely to increase greatly
year by year also.

JAPAN'S MODERN TRADE FACILITIES

Owing to the irregular conformation of the surface of the country,
good roads in Japan can scarcely be said to exist. But 20,000 miles of
roads have been built, of which the state maintains about one fourth.
There are also 2505 miles of railway, of which the state owns and
maintains about one fourth also. There are 11,720 miles of telegraph
routes, with 37,000 miles of wire; 520 miles of telephone routes, with
6347 miles of wire; and 387 miles of submarine cable routes, with 1481
miles of wire. The country also has a merchant navy of 827 steam
vessels of modern type and 702 sailing-vessels of modern type, besides
668 native craft. Owing to the irregular and rocky nature of the
coast-line and the great number of small islands which exist, numerous
lighthouses are needed; but Japan's lighthouse system is one of the
best in the world.

JAPAN'S FOREIGN TRADE

Japan has a foreign trade of $60,000,000 annually in exports and
$86,000,000 annually in imports. Of the export trade the principal
part, running from a fourth to a third, is with the United States. The
next largest part is with France, the next with Hongkong, the next
with China, and the next with Great Britain. But Great Britain's
direct share is not more than a twelfth. Of the import trade the
principal part, almost one third, is with Great Britain. The United
States' share is about a twelfth, and that of France about one
twenty-fifth. The principal exports are RAW SILK (about one third of
the whole), SILK GOODS (about one tenth of the whole), TEA, coal,
copper, rice, and matches. The export of matches amounts to $2,500,000
annually. Characteristic exports, though they do not figure largely in
the total amount, are floor rugs, lacquered ware, porcelain ware,
fans, umbrellas, bronze ware, repousse work, paper ware and
papier-mache, fibre carpets, and camphor. There is also a large export
of fish, shellfish, cuttlefish, edible seaweed, and mushrooms to China
and other Asiatic countries. The chief import is RAW COTTON (almost
one fifth of the whole). Other important imports are sugar (although
she raises almost 100,000,000 pounds of sugar herself annually),
cotton yarn, cotton goods, woollen cloths, flannels and blankets,
kerosene oil, watches, and articles of iron and steel as above
enumerated. The fishing industry is a very important one and over
2,500,000 people are engaged in it. The number of fishing-boats is
about 400,000. The fish trade, which includes seaweed, is (when not
for home consumption) principally with China.

[Illustration: Japan's relation to eastern Asia.]

JAPAN'S SPECIAL TRADE CENTRES

The foreign commerce of Japan, like that of China, is allowed to be
carried on only at certain ports, called "treaty ports," of which
there are nineteen, the principal being Yokohama, Osaka, Nagasaki,
Hakodate, Niigata, and Kobe. The two principal cities, not treaty
ports, are Tokio and Kioto. TOKIO (1,300,000) is the capital and chief
centre of the political, commercial, and literary activity of the
empire. In many respects Tokio is a "modern" city. Its educational
features are excellent. Its sanitation also is good. KIOTO (340,000)
was formerly the capital, but after the revolution of 1868 it was
superseded in this respect by Tokio. YOKOHAMA (170,000), distant from
Tokio eighteen miles, is the chief place of the empire for foreign
trade. Its foreign trade, indeed, is more than half that of the whole
empire, being about $75,000,000 annually. OSAKA (487,000) is in
respect to population the second city of the empire, but its foreign
trade is not large and is carried on principally at HIOGO, a port near
it. NIIGATA (50,000) is the only treaty port on the west side of
Japan, the surf caused by the winter monsoon making the flat west
coast of the country very dangerous for shipping for half the year.
Other important ports are KOBE (161,000) and NAGASAKI (72,000). NAGOYA
(215,000) is an important inland town.

IX. THE TRADE FEATURES OF AFRICA

AFRICA FIFTEEN YEARS AGO

Within a period of about fifteen years the continent of Africa has
been the scene of a vast partition. At the beginning of that period
the amount of African territory that was subject to European control
was comparatively small. The British were firmly established in South
Africa, and had possessions along the coasts elsewhere principally in
the west. The French were firmly established in Algeria and in
Senegal. The Portuguese had their ancient settlements in Mozambique
and Lower Guinea. Morocco on the northwest and Abyssinia in the
northeast were more or less well-established governments that were
independent. Egypt in the extreme northeast, with tributary
possessions extending along the Nile into the far interior of the
continent, was also a more or less well-established government that
possessed a quasi-independence, though it was nominally dependent upon
Turkey. But elsewhere, except in a few other places controlled by
European authority, the whole continent may be described as having
been in its original state of savagery or semi-savagery. No government
existed anywhere that was either beneficent or stable. The
slave-traffic abounded everywhere.

EUROPEAN SPHERES OF INFLUENCE IN AFRICA

The European governments that had possessions in Africa were all doing
their best to suppress the slave-traffic. But they could not take very
salutary steps in this direction without exercising authority beyond
the territorial limits they were supposed to occupy. Gradually, for
these reasons, and also for the reason that they were all anxious to
extend their commercial dealings in Africa, they began to exercise
authority beyond their old-time territorial limits. In this way began
the establishment on the part of European nations of what are known as
"spheres of influence" in Africa. At first England and France were the
only nations that were at all active in establishing these spheres of
influence. Later on Germany and Italy and other nations began to
establish them also. Beginning, therefore, with the years 1883 and
1884 there has been a general establishment and gradual extension of
these spheres until now the whole continent has been practically
parcelled out among a few European powers.

THE GREAT PARTITION OF AFRICA

[Illustration: The partition of Africa.]

The ancient empire of Morocco still exists in an independent state.
Abyssinia, though Italy attempted to subjugate it, is again also
independent. The little republic of Liberia is nominally independent.
Some territory in the very heart of the Sahara or Great Desert is yet
in its aboriginal independence. But elsewhere, throughout the whole
continent, Africa is either British, or French, or German, or Belgian,
or Portuguese, or Italian. Spain's holding is not worth mentioning.
Italy's holding also is scarcely worth mentioning. Portugal's holding
has not been increased in the recent "scramble"--only made more
definite. France's holding, however, has been enormously increased,
and is now the largest (3,300,000 square miles), although much of the
French area is barren desert, and much of the rest of it
uninhabitable by white people. Great Britain's holding also has been
greatly increased, but not nearly so much so as it would have been if
in the earlier years of the scramble the British government had not
been singularly blind to the actions of other governments in the
matter. Germany, too, has got a substantial holding (925,000 square
miles). The Kongo Free State, which, though nominally independent, is
practically under the suzerainty of Belgium, and must look to Belgium
for the funds with which to promote its development, is also a
substantial possession, being a little less than Germany's
holding--900,000 square miles.

GREAT BRITAIN IN AFRICA

Great Britain's holding, however, in the partitioned continent
comprises its best portions. Much of Africa is uninhabitable by white
men. Wherever, however, white men can live--except in northern
Africa--there Great Britain has managed to get control. Excluding the
shore of the Mediterranean, the best part of Africa, considered from
the view points of colonisation and commerce, is what is now known as
"British South Africa." This is an immense area--an area of almost
1,000,000 square miles. It comprises (1) that whole southern portion
of the continent known as Cape Colony, and (2) that portion of the
great central plateau of the continent which extends from Cape Colony
northward to Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika--all except the two Boer
republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic.
British East Africa (800,000 square miles) includes the territory of
Uganda, north of Lake Victoria, a territory which from the character
of its native population and its possibilities of trade has been
called the "pearl of Africa." British West Africa (500,000 square
miles) includes the basin of the lower Niger, the most densely peopled
area in all Africa, the seat of the great Fula-Hausa empire of
Sokoto-Gandu, the wealthiest and greatest trading nation in the
continent. Furthermore, in the northeast, Great Britain exercises
"protectorate control" over Egypt--a control that is likely to be
instrumental in reclaiming for Egypt, and thus for civilisation and
commerce under British authority, the whole of Egypt's ancient
possessions along the Nile as far at least as Uganda. The total area
of the British possessions in Africa, exclusive of the two Boer
republics and Egypt, is over 2,300,000 square miles.

THE "DOMINION OF SOUTH AFRICA"

"South Africa" is practically "British South Africa." The German
portion is either largely barren or else inaccessible. The Portuguese
portion is only a narrow strip along the east coast, much of which is
too unhealthy for habitation other than by natives. The two Boer
republics are rapidly filling up with British people, are being
developed by British capital, and must in time become confederated
with the states that environ them. One of them, too, is already under
British suzerainty. British South Africa, however, is as yet only a
name. It has no real existence except in hope. The aspiration of
statesmen in southern Africa is that all the territories of southern
Africa under British control shall form one confederation, and that in
this confederation the Orange Free State and the South African
Republic shall join. The territories entering into this confederation
would therefore be as follows: The self-governing colonies of Cape
Colony and Natal, the crown colony of Basutoland, the protectorates of
Bechuanaland and Zululand, the territory now administered by the
British South Africa Company, popularly known as "Rhodesia," and the
British Central Africa protectorate, with in addition the two Boer
republics previously mentioned. The length of this proposed South
African dominion would be 1800 miles. Its width would be from 600
to 800 miles. And, as said above, its area would be about 1,000,000
square miles. Mr. Stanley predicts that in a hundred years the
"Dominion of South Africa" will have a white population of 8,000,000,
and a coloured population of 16,000,000.

SOUTH AFRICA'S AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES

Of South Africa as above defined Cape Colony and Natal are at present
the most important portions. Their climate is in some respects the
finest in the world. Their soil is of remarkable richness. The number
of distinct species of indigenous plants found upon it is greater than
for any other equal area on the globe. The same remark was once true
of the animals found in South Africa, which again is testimony to the
great fertility of the soil. But a serious drawback is the
insufficiency and uncertainty of the rain supply. Irrigation, however,
is practised, and wherever irrigation is possible the land may be made
to blossom like the rose. Agriculture, however, is only indifferently
pursued. The VINE in Cape Colony produces more abundantly, very much
more abundantly than anywhere else in the world, and yet neither
grape-raising nor wine-making can be said to be successful. PASTURING
is the principal occupation of the people in rural districts. There
are 17,000,000 sheep in Cape Colony, and 6,000,000 goats. Natal, which
is warmer, has 500,000 sheep. Another principal occupation is
OSTRICH-FARMING. The ostrich, once wild in South Africa, is now bred
domestically. Cape Colony has 230,000 ostriches. Ostrich feathers
fetch from $150 to $300 a pound. The RAISING OF CATTLE is another
principal occupation, and draught cattle are much used for transport
purposes. Cape Colony has 2,000,000 cattle; Natal, 1,000,000. The
principal food crops are wheat and maize, but little is raised for
export. In Natal, sugar is an important product, and also tea. Many
magnificent timber woods are found, but the trees are stunted and
little timber is exported. Much has been wasted by fires. The great
agricultural possibilities of South Africa are WOOL, MOHAIR (the hair
of the Angora goat), fruit, wine, and skins. The breadstuffs of South
Africa will probably all be needed for home consumption.

SOUTH AFRICA'S GREAT MINERAL WEALTH

All the world over South Africa is famous for its DIAMOND-MINES and
its GOLD-MINES. The diamonds are found principally in Griqualand,
north of the Orange River, now a part of Cape Colony, but they are
also found in the Orange Free State. The diamond areas are very
circumscribed, the diamond-bearing "pipes" being supposed to be
craters of extinct volcanoes. The principal "pipes" are at KIMBERLEY
(28,718), in Griqualand. These constitute the richest diamond-fields
in the world. It is estimated that over $350,000,000 worth of diamonds
have been taken out of Kimberley since their first discovery there in
1867. The largest South African diamond yet found was worth $300,000,
but many other large ones have been found. The annual diamond export
now is about $20,000,000. For 1896 the export was $23,200,000; for
1897 a little less. The production and export are strictly limited, so
that prices may not depreciate. Next in interest to the diamond-fields
are the gold-mines. These so far have been found principally in the
South African Republic, or "Transvaal" as it is popularly called, in
the "rand," or "reef," near the far-famed town of JOHANNESBURG
(102,078). Since gold was first discovered in the rand (1871)
$250,000,000 worth has been taken out. The annual output now is nearly
$50,000,000, but it is estimated that before the rand can be exhausted
$2,250,000,000 worth of gold must be taken out--an amount much greater
than the total public debt of the United States, national, state, and
municipal. But north of the Transvaal, in Rhodesia, especially in
Mashonaland, is a territory popularly called the "Land of Ophir,"
where mining operations are only just begun, but where gold is
supposed to be even more richly stored than in the Transvaal. Of this
district the newly built town of SALISBURY is the centre. Other
mineral products of South Africa are coal in Natal, mined at
NEWCASTLE, and copper in the northwest of Cape Colony, shipped at PORT
NOLLOTH.

SOUTH AFRICA'S FOREIGN TRADE

The import trade of South Africa so far consists of almost everything
needed by the inhabitants except meat, flour, vegetables, and fruit,
for there are as yet almost no manufactures. The principal exports
are: (1) gold, $60,000,000 per annum, including that from the
Transvaal; (2) diamonds, $22,500,000; (3) wool, $12,500,000; (4)
mohair, the hair of the Angora goat, $3,000,000; (5) ostrich feathers,
over $2,500,000; (6) hides and skins, $2,200,000; and (7) copper ore,
$1,250,000. The export of wine and fruit, for the production of which
the country is so well suited, and also of grain, is inconsiderable.

SHIPPING PORTS AND RAILWAYS OF SOUTH AFRICA

British South Africa, like all of Africa, is wanting in seaports. In
fact, it has but few. However, it has one, WALFISH BAY, which
territorially does not belong to it, inasmuch as it is in the middle
of the coast of German Southwest Africa--the only port in that coast.
The principal port in British South Africa is CAPE TOWN (83,718),
which is also the capital and principal place. The next principal
ports are, for Cape Colony, PORT ELIZABETH (23,266) and EAST LONDON,
and for Natal, DURBAN. LORENZO MARQUEZ, on Delagoa Bay, and BEIRA, at
the mouth of the Pungwe, both in Portuguese East Africa, are natural
ports for northern British South Africa, and are used as such,
railways being constructed from them into the interior.
Railroad-making, indeed, is now the all-important matter in South
Africa. Lines are already built from Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East
London, Durban, and Lorenzo Marquez to the diamond-fields of Kimberley
and the gold-mines of Johannesburg. These also give to the pastoral
and agricultural parts of the interior facilities of access to the
sea. But the line from Cape Town to Kimberley is being rapidly
extended northward to Salisbury, the central point of the gold-fields
of Rhodesia, and already has reached BULAWAYO, 1600 miles from Cape
Town. The line from Beira is also to end at Salisbury. Already a
telegraph line extending from Salisbury northward has reached the west
shore of Lake Nyassa, and by the close of this year (1898) it will
reach the south end of Lake Tanganyika. It is proposed that the
railroad from Bulawayo shall follow this same route, and it is the
dream (or shall we say the hope?) of the empire-builders of South
Africa that this railway shall before many years be so far advanced
northward that it will meet the railway that is now being built from
Cairo southward through the continent along the Nile. Mr. Stanley
predicts that the "Cape to Cairo" railway will be an accomplished fact
before 1925. The white population of South Africa, even including the
Boer republics, is still less than 750,000.

X. THE TRADE FEATURES OF AUSTRALIA

AUSTRALIA AND AUSTRALASIA

The term AUSTRALASIA, as now generally used, comprises Australia
(including Tasmania) and New Zealand, and a number of small
neighbouring islands. So used it practically denotes a British
possession; for such islands as are comprised by the term and yet do
not belong to Great Britain are comparatively unimportant. But when we
speak of Australasia, we are generally thinking of AUSTRALIA, for
Australia is so large and important that it seems to overshadow the
other parts of Australasia. But in respect to politics or commerce
Australia is not one country; it is divided into several
self-governing colonies. These are, in order of importance, Victoria,
New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, and West Australia. But
a movement is now being made to unite all these colonies, and Tasmania
as well, into one "Australian Confederation," just as the several
provinces of Canada, which were once independent colonies, have been
united into one "Dominion of Canada." This confederation scheme,
however, has not yet been accomplished.[3] New Zealand, because of
its distance (1200 miles) from Australia, has so far shown no desire
to enter into this confederation.

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