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INDIA'S MINERAL RESOURCES

At one time India was famed for its wealth in precious minerals and
precious stones. Poets often celebrated its golden resources. But its
wealth in this respect was always fabulous rather than real. India is
in reality poor in minerals. It has a good deal of iron--iron of the
choicest quality. It has also a good deal of coal, but its coal is
poor, owing to its superabundance of ash. It has also a little copper
and tin. It has gold-mines that are worked. Diamonds, too, are found
in southern India, and numerously so. The celebrated Koh-i-nur (280
carats) was an Indian product. But neither diamond-hunting nor
gold-mining is any longer a profitable industry in India. The
principal mineral industry of India is salt-mining, pursued in the
Punjaub, where there are solid cliffs of pure salt. Owing to the fact
that the people of India are mostly vegetarians (250,000,000 of
Hindoos would rather die than eat flesh), salt is a necessary article
of diet and a universal commodity. Its production, therefore, is
controlled by the government as a means of raising revenue.

INDIA'S WONDERFUL AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES

[Illustration: Comparative sizes of India and the United States.]

The real wealth of India lies in the luxuriance and economic value of
its VEGETATION. As a consequence the principal industry is
AGRICULTURE. Only one tenth of the people live in towns. Two thirds of
the adult males in the country are engaged wholly in tilling the soil.
Every sort of agricultural product known to commerce is raised in
India; for from the high levels on the mountain sides to the low
levels on the coasts the vegetation of the whole world is produced
within its borders. Even in WHEAT India competes in the world's
markets with countries like Russia and Argentina. In 1896 British
India had 19,000,000 acres of wheat under cultivation, and (though a
dearth year) an exportation of $4,000,000. In 1892 the exportation was
$25,000,000. The district known as the Central Provinces of India has
become one of the most important wheat areas in the world. But the
principal agricultural product of India is RICE. British India alone
has 70,000,000 acres of rice under cultivation, and an annual
exportation of $60,000,000. In all the coast regions rice is grown
universally, and also in the lower parts of the river plains,
especially in the Ganges valley. It is the staple food of the people
everywhere except on the higher levels. On the higher levels millet
and maize (corn) are the staple foods. The next important agricultural
product of India is COTTON, of which $47,000,000 worth in the raw
state is exported annually, besides what is used at home. The American
civil war was the great cause of the starting of the cotton-growing
industry in India. The next important agricultural product is JUTE, of
which the export in the raw state is about $35,000,000. No country in
the world can compete with India in the production of this fibre, for
jute is very exhaustive of the soil, and in the Ganges valley, where
it is principally raised, the soil is annually replenished by
alluvium. A fifth great agricultural product is TEA, in which India
now leads the world. England uses twice as much India tea as China
tea, the reason being that India teas are produced with all the
economic care of a high-class English or American manufactured
product. The value of the tea export of India is about $27,000,000.
Other chief agricultural products are OPIUM (which is a government
monopoly), oil seeds, hides, and skins, INDIGO (in which India excels
the world, the value of the export being $14,000,000), COFFEE (the
best grown anywhere--except perhaps that of Arabia and Java--though
the bean is sometimes injured in transit), raw wool, lac (for dyeing),
cinchona or Peruvian bark (which since it has been raised in India,
has greatly reduced the price of quinine), raw silk, raw sugar,
tobacco, and spices. Spices are produced abundantly in India, but
their quality is not equal to East Indian spices. Also the cotton,
rice, sugar, and tobacco of India, though produced plentifully, are
inferior in quality to those of the United States. Nor are the wheat
and corn of India so good as the wheat and corn of the United States
and Canada. Improved cultivation will, however, in time improve the
quality of all these products. Of exports of natural products not
agricultural the principal are WOOD (chiefly TEAK, the most valuable
timber known for ship-building, and sal, a most valuable wood for
carpentry) and saltpetre.

INDIA'S GROWING MANUFACTURES

Though India is now chiefly an agricultural country her people from
time immemorial have been adepts in manufacturing. The domestic
textile manufactures and the domestic metal manufactures of India were
for ages among the most beautiful and ingenious in the world. These
DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES are principally pursued in small villages, of
which there are over half a million in India. But under the influences
of modern civilisation introduced by British rule, the domestic
industries of the country are now giving way to FACTORY INDUSTRIES.
These have already become well established, and are rapidly increasing
in number and importance. The stability of India as a nation is now so
well assured that capital can be had there as cheaply as in England or
the United States. Besides, co-operative or joint-stock enterprises
are becoming common. The Indian people, with their natural aptitude
for weaving, make the best of textile operatives, and India bids fair
soon to become a formidable rival of Western nations in TEXTILE
MANUFACTURES. In twenty years the cotton spindles have increased
sixfold. In ten years the COTTON OUTPUT has increased twofold. Bombay
has become one of the greatest cotton centres in the world, a sort of
Liverpool and Manchester combined. It has practically shut the doors
of India to English manufactured cottons of the cheaper grades. Bombay
manufactured cotton is even sent to England in immense quantities, but
the principal export is to China. The total export of Indian
manufactured cotton is $23,000,000. Another important modern
manufacture is that of JUTE. The jute factories of Bengal are now
competing with those of Scotland, and the total export is $17,500,000.
A similar development is expected in iron manufactures, for already
iron-smelting has begun. But, notwithstanding these developments,
India still remains a tremendous market for the manufactured goods of
England, especially in cottons and hardware and machinery. The value
of the annual cotton importation from England is $100,000,000, equal
to the total of England's exportation of goods of every sort to the
United States. The value of the annual hardware and machinery
importation from England is $35,000,000.

INDIA'S EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL TRADE

The total yearly value of the EXPORTS of India amounts to the enormous
sum of $350,000,000, more than a third of the total exportation of the
United States for the banner year 1897.[2] Of this England receives
about one half. The total yearly value of the IMPORTS of India
(exclusive of bullion) amounts to $255,000,000, which is considerably
more than a third of the total importation of the United States. Of
this England sends out about two thirds. (India is therefore England's
best customer, although from the United States England purchases
vastly more.) Of the internal trade of India no statistics are
available, but with the rapid advances in modern conveniences for
doing business which the country is adopting, the internal trade is
also enormously increasing. Already 20,290 miles of railway are built
and opened, and 13,000 miles of canals and canalised river
navigation. Railways are rapidly being constructed in every part of
the country. Over 31,000 miles of metalled roads for highways and
106,000 of unmetalled roads are now maintained by the government as
public works. There are 38,000 miles of telegraph routes. The
government highways and canals as well as the railways are all
splendidly engineered and solidly built works. The greatness of India
is only just beginning.

FOOTNOTE:

[2] The total exports of the United States for the years 1898 and 1899
have exceeded $1,200,000,000, each year. In the year 1897 they were
about $1,050,000,000.

INDIA'S CITIES AND TOWNS

CALCUTTA (862,000) is the capital of the empire of India and the
second city in the British Empire. Although situated on an arm of the
delta of the Ganges, eighty miles inland, Calcutta is an immense
seaport, but its sea-going privileges can be maintained only by great
engineering works, because of the silt which the Ganges is constantly
bringing down and depositing in its seaward channels. Calcutta enjoys
almost a monopoly of the whole trade of the Ganges and Brahmapootra
valleys, and until the building of the Suez Canal it had almost a
monopoly of the outward trade of the whole Hindustan peninsula. Its
total trade is even yet very large, aggregating for outward and inward
business together about $700,000,000 per annum, a sum which can be
appreciated from the fact that it is about equal to the total import
trade of the whole of the United States. BOMBAY (822,000), the second
city of the Indian Empire, owes its eminence to three things: (1) the
opening of the Suez Canal, which has made it the port of India nearest
England; (2) the starting of the cotton-growing industry in India,
owing to the American civil war (the cotton-growing district of India
is adjacent to Bombay); and (3) the development of the railway system
of India, which is making Bombay rather than Calcutta the natural
ocean outlet for the trade of the country. MADRAS (453,000), the
third city of India, is also the third seaport. But it has no natural
harbour, and its shore is surf-beaten and for months together exposed
to the full fury of the northeast monsoons. An artificial harbour,
however, has recently been built. Besides the cities above mentioned
there is one (HYDERABAD) with a population of over 400,000; there are
two (LUCKNOW and BENARES) with a population of over 150,000 each, and
eleven more with a population of over 100,000 each. There are besides
forty-seven towns with a population more than 50,000 each, and over a
thousand towns with a population of about 10,000 each.

VII. THE TRADE FEATURES OF CHINA

THE VASTNESS OF CHINA'S AREA AND POPULATION

China, to the student of commerce, is the most interesting country on
the globe. The reason for this is that its area is so large, its
population so vast, and its chances for development so magnificent.
The total area of the empire, according to late estimates, is
4,218,401 square miles. Other estimates make it 4,468,470 square
miles. The greatness of this area may be understood from a few
comparisons. It is about one twelfth of the total land surface of the
globe. It is two and one fourth times the size of European Russia. It
is almost one and one half times the total area of the United States,
exclusive of Alaska. But all of this territory is not of equal
commercial interest. The Chinese Empire consists of six parts: China
Proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, Jungaria, and Eastern Turkestan.
Because of recent treaties, which give to Russia the right to build
and "control" railways in Manchuria--ostensibly for the purpose of
securing for the great Russian Trans-Siberian Railway a shorter route
to Vladivostok, its Pacific terminus--MANCHURIA becomes practically a
RUSSIAN POSSESSION. Turkestan, Jungaria, Tibet, and Mongolia are
thinly inhabited countries, scarcely semi-civilised. But the part
which remains when these "dependencies" are left out of
consideration--CHINA PROPER--is at once one of the largest, most
thickly populated, and most fertile countries on the face of the
globe, and one also of the most richly endowed in mineral products.
Its area is 1,336,841 square miles. Its population is 386,000,000. Its
population per square mile is not far short of 300. That is to say,
its area is more than eleven times that of Great Britain and Ireland,
and almost one half that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska;
its population is ten times that of Great Britain and Ireland, and
more than six times that of the United States; while its population
per square mile is greater than that of any European or American
country except Great Britain (which, however, it nearly equals),
Holland, and Belgium. In fact, more than one fourth of the total
population of the globe is concentrated within the boundaries of
China Proper.

CHINA A COUNTRY OF GREAT TRADE POSSIBILITIES

The great commercial nations of the world are now all trying to get
shares of the trade of this VAST AND POPULOUS COUNTRY. For not only is
China (Proper) large and populous, but it is also wealthy, for its
inhabitants are both industrious and frugal, and, besides, as compared
with the people of European countries they have been greatly spared
the disastrous commerce-destroying effects of war, both foreign and
internecine. Centuries ago the Chinese had made great progress toward
civilisation. Their skill in the manufacturing arts, and in
agriculture and horticulture, was for ages superior to that of Western
nations. But, unfortunately for their advancement, they are
conservative, self-conceited, and averse to improvement, especially if
they have to learn improvement of others. As yet they have almost
wholly ignored the ideas and methods of modern Western civilisation.
They have scarcely any railways, but few steamships, almost no
steam-power manufactories, and no telephones. The only modern
improvement which they have made much use of is the telegraph. Some
years ago (in 1876) a European company secured the privilege of
building a short railway from Shanghai, but it was scarcely built
before the government got fearful of its influence and bought it up
and stopped its running. But the Chinese people are not averse to
foreign trade; on the contrary, they are rather fond of it. If only
the thing could happen in China that happened in Japan--that is to
say, if only the government could fall into the hands of rulers who
were open-minded to improvement and inclined to be progressive--the
rush that China would make toward civilisation and the adoption of
modern trade methods and modern processes of manufacture would be
startling.

CHINA'S FOREIGN TRADE

At present the foreign trade of China is largely in the hands of the
English. In the year 1896 the foreign export trade of China amounted
to $167,000,000. Of this amount $132,500,000 was with Great Britain
and her dependencies; $10,000,000 with the United States; something
over $8,000,000 with the continent of Europe exclusive of Russia, and
less than $2,000,000 with Russia. In the same year the foreign import
trade of China was $102,500,000, of which $56,000,000 was with Great
Britain and her dependencies; a little over $9,000,000 with the United
States; $15,000,000 with the continent of Europe exclusive of Russia,
and $12,500,000 with Russia. (The rest of her trade was principally
with Japan.) The policy of the government of China has always been to
prevent or restrict foreign trade; and even to-day foreign trade can
be carried on in only twenty-six Chinese ports--the so-called "TREATY
PORTS." The policy of Great Britain has been to secure by treaty as
large a privilege of trading with China as possible; then to throw
open the privilege to the world, but to follow it up with such
commercial activity on her own part as would secure to her the lion's
share of the resulting trade. Of the twenty-six ports now by treaty
open to the world for trade, twenty-three have been secured by Great
Britain and three by Japan.

CHINA'S EXPORTS, IMPORTS, AND RESOURCES

China's principal exports are TEA and SILK, tea constituting about one
third and silk (principally raw silk) fully one half of her total
export trade. Other principal exports are sugar, STRAW BRAID (one
twentieth of her total exportation), hides, paper, chinaware, and
pottery. Her principal imports are OPIUM and COTTON GOODS, opium
constituting a fifth, and cotton goods considerably more than a half,
of her total import trade. Other principal imports are woollen goods,
metal goods and machinery, coal, and kerosene oil. A considerable
importation is also made of raw cotton. But if China only had the
blessing of an enlightened and progressive government this disposition
of exports and imports would not long continue. China's resources of
COAL are among the finest and certainly among the largest in the whole
world. Her coal-fields, indeed, are estimated to be twenty times as
great as those of all Europe combined. Much of this coal, too, is of
the purest quality, and much of it very accessible to the miner. And
near her coal-fields are vast deposits of some of the richest IRON
ORES in the world. Again, a great portion of the soil of China is
extremely fertile. There are indeed two regions, one of "RED SOIL" and
another, much vaster, of "YELLOW SOIL," that are among the most
fertile in the world. It is because of the extent and fertility of the
yellow soil of China that "yellow" is the imperial colour, and the
emperor called the "yellow lord." The climate, too, of China permits
almost the whole range of useful vegetable products to be raised. The
growth of COTTON is already very great, because for seven centuries
cotton has been the staple cloth for the clothing of the people. And
already it is being manufactured by modern machinery. But both the
growth of cotton and its manufacture by modern methods would be
enormously increased if only facilities for internal transportation
existed, and freedom from unjust taxation could be secured. If, in
short, China only had railways and a good and enlightened system of
government her progress and prosperity would soon make the Western
world envious. But her government is not only stupidly unprogressive,
it is also disastrously wasteful. About seventy per cent. of the whole
revenue of the country is lost to the public use through the
malfeasance of officials. And only about 85 miles of railway have as
yet been opened, although it must be said that 200 or 250 miles more
are under construction.

POSSIBILITIES OF INCREASED FOREIGN TRADE WITH CHINA

There are, however, even now several ways in which foreign trade with
China may be increased. Two of these are the supplying her people with
WOOLLEN GOODS, and the supplying them with WHEAT and FLOUR. The
winters of a great part of China are so cool that warm garments are
necessary. At present these are made principally of padded cotton.
Owing to the density of the population pasturage is scarce, and sheep
are almost unknown. For an indefinite time, therefore, there will be
a demand for woollen goods in China, a demand that will constantly
increase as the superior convenience of woollen garments over garments
of padded cotton becomes more and more known to the people. And though
rice is now the staple food of the people even of all classes, the
wealthy classes are fond of wheat bread and obtain it when possible.
But the agriculture of the country does not permit of the profitable
growth of wheat and flour, and wheat if used must be imported.

THE PRINCIPAL TRADING CITIES OF CHINA

The cities of China are large and numerous. PEKING (1,500,000?), the
capital, is not open to foreign trade. In fact, it has no trade of any
sort, and derives its whole importance from being the seat of
government. But TIENTSIN (750,000), the port of Peking, and an
important "treaty port," has a large trade, both foreign and local.
Tientsin and Peking are connected by rail, and since the Russian
government has obtained the right of connecting Peking with the
Trans-Siberian Railway, it is more than likely that in time Tientsin
will become a terminus of that railway. Of "treaty ports" other than
Tientsin the principal are Shanghai, Hankow, Foochow, Hangchow, Amoy,
and Canton. SHANGHAI (405,000) exceeds all other ports of China put
together in the amount of its foreign trade. Its foreign trade is,
indeed, almost three fifths of that of the whole empire. And of the
total number of foreigners residing in China (in 1896 said to be
10,855, of whom 4362 were British subjects and 1439 Americans) about
one half reside in Shanghai. Shanghai is, indeed, the New York of
China, and if railways were only built from it (as has been proposed)
to the capital, Peking, and up the Yang-tse-kiang to Hankow, and by
way of the coast cities to Canton, China would begin a new era in
her career. HANKOW (800,000), on the Yang-tse-kiang, about 700 miles
from its mouth, is the chief emporium of the tea-producing area of
China. Ocean-going steamships ascend the river to Hankow for their
cargoes. FOOCHOW (650,900) also has a great tea export trade. HANGCHOW
(700,000), one of the most beautiful cities in China, is also the
chief city for the manufacture of silks, and of gold and silver ware,
lacquered ware, and fans. AMOY (100,000) has the best harbour in China
and an immense import trade, ranking in that respect next after
Shanghai. CANTON (2,000,000?) is the largest city in the Chinese
Empire. A considerable portion of its inhabitants live in boats. Of
these "house-boats" there are said to be 40,000. The foreign trade of
Canton is next to that of Shanghai. Once it was superior, now it is
much inferior. Its manufactures, however, are still important and
include silk, cotton, glass, porcelain, paper, sugar, lacquered ware,
and ivory goods and metal goods. NANKING (150,000), once the capital
of China and once the largest city in the world, is now comparatively
a small city. Although a treaty port, its commerce is not important.
It was once famous for its beautiful tower of porcelain, 200 feet
high, but that is now destroyed. There are many other large cities
in China.

[Illustration: China and its chief trade centres.]

HONGKONG

HONGKONG (245,000) is a small island belonging to Great Britain
situated in the mouth of the Canton River, seventy-five miles from the
city of Canton. Its population is made up principally of Chinese, who
have been attracted there by its trade privileges. The British
population is only 13,000, even including the garrison of 2800. Almost
the whole population reside in the capital, VICTORIA, for the island
itself is a barren rock. Forty-four per cent. of the total foreign
trade of China passes through Hongkong. Its harbour is one of the
finest in the world. It has magnificent docks. Its port is entirely
free, and there is even no custom-house. It is calculated that the
foreign trade transacted by its merchants amounts to $100,000,000 a
year, exclusive of what passes through its port without breaking bulk.
The whole of the vast export trade of China in silk and tea is largely
handled by Hongkong firms. Other commodities of which Hongkong is the
chief trade centre for China are opium, flour, salt, earthenware, oil,
cotton, and cotton goods and woollen goods, which it imports from
other countries and exports to China; and sugar, rice, amber,
sandal-wood, ivory, and betel, which it imports from China and exports
to other countries. Its trade is not confined to Great Britain, but
includes France, Germany, the United States, and all other trading
nations. But of course Great Britain has the greatest share.

VIII. THE TRADE FEATURES OF JAPAN

JAPAN THE GREAT BRITAIN OF ASIA

Japan consists of a group of islands situated to the east of the
continent of Asia, somewhat as the British Isles are situated to the
west of the continent of Europe. But the Japan islands are of volcanic
origin and are very numerous. There are said to be 4223 of them.
However, there are only four that are of important size, and it is
these that are usually thought of when Japan is spoken of. The area of
these four islands is 147,655 miles, which is almost a fourth more
than that of Great Britain and Ireland. The population (census of
1895) is 42,270,620, which is 4,000,000 more than that of Great
Britain and Ireland. The population per square mile is 286, which,
though large, is not quite so large as that of Great Britain. If,
however, we do not take into consideration the northern island (Yezo),
which is still partly inhabited by uncivilised aborigines, the
population per square mile is 375, which is considerably in excess of
that of both China and Great Britain and Ireland, though still
considerably less than that of England alone. The above statistics do
not include the island of Formosa (area 13,500 miles, population
almost 2,000,000), which was transferred from China to Japan in 1895,
at the close of the late Chino-Japanese war.

JAPAN'S WONDERFUL TRANSFORMATION

The significant thing about Japan is the rapidity with which it has
become transformed from a semi-civilised nation into one of the great
nations of the modern world. Until the year 1868 Japan was an
unprogressive, unenlightened country of the usual Asiatic type,
scarcely differing in any way from an inland province of China of
to-day. In that year a revolution took place which put the whole power
of the empire into the hands of the present Mikado, or Emperor.
Immediately Japan began to assimilate Western ideas of civilisation
and to adopt Western methods of trade, commerce, manufacture,
government, and education. Until 1889 the government remained an
absolute monarchy. In that year the Mikado voluntarily promulgated a
constitution by which a legislative Parliament, or "Imperial Diet,"
and an executive Cabinet of State Ministers were instituted, so that
the government of Japan is now as "constitutional" as that of Germany
or Great Britain. The government is in other ways thoroughly modern.
Education, for example, is almost as well looked after as in Germany
or New England. There are 220 kindergartens established, 97 technical
schools, and 49 normal schools for the training of teachers (one being
for the training of high-school teachers), besides elementary schools,
middle schools, high schools, special schools (1263 of these), and
universities. The University of Tokio is an imperial institution,
supported entirely by the government, with colleges in law, science,
medicine, literature, engineering, and agriculture. Education, between
the ages of six and fourteen, is compulsory. The army, too, is wholly
a modern affair. It consists of 285,000 men, and an idea of its
modernness may be gathered from the fact that an important part of its
organisation is its training schools and colleges. Even the
non-commissioned officers are specially trained and educated.
Altogether the students in the military schools and colleges of Japan
number 2400. The navy, too, as is well known, is both modern and
efficient. It consists of 5 battleships and 15 high-class cruisers,
besides 46 other vessels,--torpedo craft, gunboats, convoy ships,
etc.,--and it is intended to build an immense fleet of 19 battleships
and cruisers, and 100 torpedo craft in addition.

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