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_An employer must also select suitable places for his employes._ In
one of the cases a court said a master does not warrant his servant's
safety. He does, however, agree to adopt and keep proper means with
which to carry on the business in which they are employed. Among these
is the providing of a suitable place for doing his work without
exposure to dangers that do not come within the reasonable scope of
his employment. In one of the cases a company stored a quantity of
dynamite so near a place where an employe was working that he was
killed by its explosion. The court held that it was negligence on the
part of the company in requiring its employe to work so near the place
where this explosive material was kept.

It is said that if an employe knows that a machine which he is to
operate is defective when accepting employment he can recover nothing
for the consequences. He assumes the risk whenever he thus engages to
work. If the service be especially perilous and yet he clearly
understands the nature of it and is injured when performing it, he can
get nothing. Doubtless in many of these cases he is paid a larger sum
for working under such conditions. Whatever may be the truth in this
regard, the principle of law is well understood that, if he has a full
knowledge of the risk of his situation and makes no complaint about
the nature of the machinery that he is to operate, he accepts the
risks, however great they may be. In one of the cases an employe was
injured by the kick of a horse belonging to his employer, but he
recovered nothing, because he understood the vicious nature of the
animal. The horse had kicked others; in fact, its reputation for
kicking was well known, and the employe began work with his eyes wide
open.

This rule also applies if tools, machinery, etc., become defective and
the employe continues to work after the defects are found out. Of
course, every one knows that tools wear out and machinery becomes
weaker, and that is one of the natural consequences of using them. And
so it is regarded as one of the risks ordinarily taken by an employe,
and therefore he can get nothing whenever he is injured through the
operation of a defective machine caused by the natural wear and tear
of time.

EXAMINATION PAPER

NOTE.--_The following questions are given as an indication of
the sort of knowledge a student ought to possess after a careful
study of the course. The student is advised to write out the
answers. Only such answers need be attempted as can be framed
from the lessons._

1. (_a_) What is a contract? (_b_) What is the difference between a
simple and a special contract? (_c_) What contracts can be made
by a minor? When and how can he ratify them? (_d_) If a person
makes a contract to work for one year and breaks it after working
six months can he collect six months' wages? (_e_) Give
illustrations of six different kinds of contracts.

2. (_a_) When is it necessary that contracts be in writing? (_b_) In
what case is a failure of consideration a good defence to a
contract? (_c_) Is a consideration required to make an offer
binding? (_d_) Is the delivery of goods essential to make a sale
complete?

3. (_a_) What are the different kinds of warranties? (_b_) Suppose A
should buy goods and pay for them, but not take them away, and
afterward B should buy them and take them away--could A recover
the goods from B?

4. (_a_) What is the difference between a public and a private
carrier? (_b_) Must a public carrier take everything offered?
(_c_) What rules of liability apply to common carriers, and how
can they be modified?

PREPARING COPY FOR THE PRESS AND PROOF-READING

I. PREPARING COPY

Our purpose in these few lessons is to give some explicit directions
as to the general make-up of manuscripts intended for printing. Every
person who has even a business card or a circular to print should have
a knowledge of the common phraseology of a printing house.

As to paper, the size in most common use for manuscripts is what is
known as _letter_. The sheets in any case should be of uniform size.
Avoid all eccentricity and affectation in the preparation of your
manuscript, or "copy," as printers call it. The more matter-of-fact
and businesslike it is the better.

If at all possible have your manuscript type-written, and under no
circumstances should you roll the sheets when preparing them for the
mails. There are a number of large publishing houses which positively
refuse to touch rolled manuscripts. The very first impression created
by such a manuscript is one of extreme irritation. A rolled proof is
pretty nearly as discouraging, yet many printers still follow the
annoying practice of rolling their proofs.

Every printing establishment of any note has its methods and customs
as regards orthography, the use of capitals and of punctuation. As a
rule it is best to leave doubtful points to the printer. Any little
deviation desired may be easily remedied in the proofs.

Paragraphs should be boldly indicated by setting the line well back in
the "copy." Extract matter included in the text should be clearly
shown, either by marking it down the side with a vertical line from
beginning to end or by setting the whole well back within the compass
of the text. Such matter is commonly set in slightly smaller type.

With regard to the corrections in the proofs it must be remembered
that the more carefully an article is written the smaller the expense
for author's corrections. This charge is often a great source of
contention between the author and the printer, and, altogether, is an
unsatisfactory item. A printer is bound, with certain reservations, to
follow the "copy" supplied. If he does that and the author does not make
any alterations there is no extra charge and nothing to wrangle about.
A small correction, trivial as it may seem to the inexperienced, may
involve much trouble to the printer. A word inserted or deleted may
cause a page to be altered throughout, line by line, and a few words
may possibly affect several pages. The charges made for corrections
are based on the time consumed in making the necessary alterations.

II. ON THE NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE

The beauty of printed matter depends very largely upon the selection
of a suitable style of type. For books and newspaper work there are in
use two general classes known as (_a_) _old style_, (_b_) _modern_.
These names refer to the shape of the letter and not to its size. The
several sizes of type commonly used in all plain work are as follows:

1. PEARL.
2. AGATE.
3. NONPAREIL.
4. MINION.
5. BREVIER.
6. BOURGEOIS.
7. LONG PRIMER.
8. SMALL PICA.
9. PICA.
10. ENGLISH.
11. GREAT PRIMER.

PICA is universally considered as the standard type, just as the _foot_
is the standard of measurement. The twelfth part of a pica is the unit,
called a _point_, by which type bodies are measured. In many printing
offices the type is known as _6-point_, _8-point_, _10-point_, _etc._,
instead of as _nonpareil_, _brevier_, _long primer_, _etc._ The
following specimens show the sizes of the type in common use:

[Illustration: Sample type faces pearl, agate, nonpareil, minion,
brevier, bourgeois, primer, small pica, pica, English, primer.]

The student must bear in mind the fact that these names refer to the
_size_ of the type. For instance, there may be a dozen different
styles of brevier or of pica; a particular specimen of printing may be
entirely in long primer, yet some words may be capitals, others
italic, others boldface, and so on.

AGATE is the size of type used in measuring advertisements. There are
fourteen agate lines in an inch.

A complete series of type of a particular size is called a _font_; as
a font of brevier, or of pica. Such a font would include:

CAPITALS
SMALL CAPITALS
lower-case
_ITALIC CAPITALS_
_italic lower-case_.

Also _figures_, _fractions_, _points_, _references_, _braces_,
_signs_, _etc._ Printers divide a font of letters into two classes:

1. _The upper-case_ } _sorts._
2. _The lower-case_ }

The _upper-case sorts_ are _capitals_, _small capitals_, _references_,
_dashes_, _braces_, _signs_, etc.

The _lower-case sorts_ consist of _small letters_, _figures_,
_points_, _spaces_, etc.

Type lines are often bulked out by the insertion of thin strips of
lead, this being called _leading_. Where no leads are employed the
matter is said to be _solid_.

III. THE TERMS USED IN PRINTING

COMPOSITION. This is the name given by printers to the work of setting
the type. The compositor holds in his hand a _composing-stick_, into
which he places the type letter by letter, adding the spaces where
necessary. A great deal of the newspaper work of the present day is
set by type machines.

DISTRIBUTING. The type of a particular page or article after it has
been used on the press or for electrotyping is distributed letter by
letter in the _cases_. This work is much more rapid than composition.
Type to be used a second time is said to be _standing_ or is called
_standing matter_.

SPACES. Spaces are short blank types and are used to separate one word
from another. To enable a compositor to space evenly and to "justify"
properly, these spaces are cast to various thicknesses. An _em
quadrat_ is a short blank type, in thickness equal to the letter _m_
of the font to which it belongs. Quadrats are of various sizes.

CALENDERED PAPER. This name is given to very highly rolled or glazed
paper such as is used in illustrated work. _Laid_ paper has a slightly
ribbed surface. _Antique_ paper is rough and usually untrimmed at the
edges. It is made in imitation of old styles.

CAPS. and LOWER-CASE. These names are used to designate capitals and
small letters.

CLARENDON. This name is commonly given to a _bold_ and _black-faced
type_, such as used in text-books to bring out prominently particular
words.

DUMMY. An imitation in style and size of a book or pamphlet that is
wanted, usually made up with blank paper.

ELECTROTYPE. Electrotype or stereotype plates are made from type.
Books are usually printed from such plates.

GALLEY PROOF. As the type is set up it is removed from the
composing-stick to long forms called _galleys_. A proof taken of the
whole galley at once is called a _galley proof_. Book work should be
revised in galleys before it is made up into pages.

IMPRESSION. A _flat-pull_ or first impression is a simple proof usually
pulled in job offices by laying a sheet of damp paper on the inked type
and pounding with a flat-surfaced weight to get the impression.

INDENT. To set a line some distance forward, as in the case of a new
paragraph.

LETTERPRESS. Printed matter from type as distinguished from plate
printing.

MAKE-UP. To measure off type matter into pages.

OFF-SET. It frequently occurs that as the result of insufficient drying
or from other causes the impression of one sheet appears on the back of
another; such work is said to _off-set_.

OVERLAYS. In making ready for the press the pressman finds it necessary
to add here and there, by pasting, thicknesses of paper to his roller to
bring out properly the light and shade of an illustration or to get an
even ink impression from the type or plates. This work is called _making
overlays_. In expensive illustrated work specialists are engaged solely
for the purpose of making overlays.

PRESS PROOF. The final proof passed by the author or publisher.

PROCESS-BLOCKS. Blocks produced by the photoengraving and other
mechanical processes.

QUERY. A mark made on a proof by the printer to call attention to a
possible error, sometimes expressed by a note of interrogation (?).

REGISTER. The exact adjustment of pages back to back in printing the
second side of a sheet.

SIGNATURE. The letter or figure at the foot of a sheet to guide the
binder in folding; also used by printers to identify any particular
sheet.

The various marks and signs used by printers will be explained in the
lesson on proof-reading.

IV. MARKS USED IN PROOF-READING

The most important of the signs used in making corrections for the
printer are as follows:

1. [Illustration] Delete or expunge.

2. [Illustration] A turned letter.

3. [Illustration] Wrong-font letter.

4. [Illustration] Change capital to small letter, ("lower-case").

5. [Illustration] Insert period.

6. [Illustration] Transpose words or letters as indicated.

7. [Illustration] Change roman to _italic_.

8. [Illustration] Change _italic_ to roman.

9. [Illustration] Space to be inserted.

10. [Illustration] Matter wrongly altered to remain as it was
originally. Dots are placed under the matter.

11. [Illustration] A bad or battered letter.

12. [Illustration] Space to be reduced.

13. [Illustration] Close up.

14. [Illustration] Push down space or lead.

15. [Illustration] New paragraph.

16. [Illustration] Something foreign between the lines, or a wrong-font
space making the type crooked.

17. [Illustration] Line to be indented one _em_ of its own body.

When letters or words are set double or are required to be taken out a
line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter and the mark No.
1, called _dele_, placed opposite on the margin. (_Dele_ is Latin for
_take out_.)

A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it and writing the
mark No. 2 on the margin.

If letters or words require to be altered to make them more
conspicuous a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word
or letter--namely, for capitals, _three lines_; for small capitals,
_two lines_; and for italic, _one line_; and on the margin opposite
the line where the alteration occurs the sign _caps._, _small caps._,
or _ital._ must be written.

Where a letter of a different font is improperly introduced into the
page it is noted by drawing a line through it and writing _w. f._
(_wrong font_) on the margin.

Where a word has been left out or is to be added a _caret_ must be
made in the place where it should come in and the word written on the
margin. A caret is made thus: ^

Where letters stand crooked they are noted by a line, but where a page
hangs lines are drawn across the entire part affected.

Where a faulty letter appears it is denoted by making a cross under it
and placing a similar mark on the margin.

Where several words are left out or where new matter is to be added
the added matter is written wherever convenient, and a line is drawn
from the place of omission to the written words.

In making a correction in a proof always mark the wrong letter or word
through and insert the alteration in the margin, not in the middle of
the printed matter, because it is liable to be overlooked if there is
no marginal reference to the correction. To keep the different
corrections distinct finish each off with a stroke, thus /; and to
make the alterations more clear or less crowded mark those relating
to the left-hand portion on the left margin and those relating to the
right-hand portion on the right margin.

* * * * *

The hints given here are intended for the general public and not for
the printer, and to the student of these lessons let us say that the
first essential of good proof-reading is clearness. Be very sure that
the printer will understand the changes which you desire him to make.
Quite often it is an advantage if you wish a particular style of type
used to cut out a sample of that style and paste it on your copy or on
your proof, indicating that you want it to be used. Instructions to
the printer written either on the copy or on the proof should be
surrounded by a line to separate them from the text, or to prevent
any confusion with other written matter intended as copy or as
corrections.

When the corrections have been duly made and approved by the author or
editor it is customary to write the word "press" on the top of the
first page. If intermediate proofs are wanted, mark on the proofs
returned to the printer "Send revise." The final or "press" proof is
always retained by the printer in case of any dispute. It is his
voucher, and he retains it for future reference.

It is a good plan to make corrections in a different coloured ink from
that used by the printer's proof-reader. If you are having a pamphlet
or book printed the different proofs will reach you in the following
order:

1. _Galley proofs._
2. _Revised proofs_ (if any).
3. _Page proofs._
4. _Foundry proofs._

[Illustration: A printer's proof.]

So far as possible, make all the necessary changes while the type is in
galleys. Once made up into pages, a very slight change, particularly
such a change as the crossing out or addition of a sentence, may make a
great deal of trouble. When the pages are passed upon they are sent to
the foundry for casting. The foundry proofs are the last proofs pulled.
Corrections made on these make it necessary to alter the electrotype
plates, which is rather an expensive process. To change a word, a piece
of the metal plate has to be cut out and another with the new word
soldered in.

[Illustration: A printer's corrected proof.]

A page is said to _overrun_ if it is too long. If the space to be
occupied is limited it is a good plan to adapt your copy to it by
counting the words and by comparing the count with that of some
printed page in the same size of type.

Return proofs to your printer or publisher as promptly as possible. As
a rule printing houses cannot afford to keep type locked up and unused
waiting for the return of proofs. There are many imperfections in
typography, such as wrong-font and inverted letters, awkward and
irregular spacing, uneven pages or columns, crooked words and lines,
etc., which it is the business of the printing house to correct. No
book or pamphlet, therefore, ought to go to press until it has been
read and revised by an experienced reader.

Strict uniformity should always be preserved in the use of capitals,
in spelling, and in punctuation.

Where authors have their manuscripts type-written and make two or
three revises upon the type-written sheets before their copy is turned
over to the publishing house, the labour of proof-reading and the
expenses of corrections are reduced to a minimum.

The errors shown in our illustration are more numerous than are likely
to appear in any proof sent out from a publishing house.

+------------------------------------------------+
| Transcriber's Notes |
+________________________________________________+
| |
| Page 35 favorable changed to favourable |
| 49 favor changed to favour |
| 65 (5) changed to 5. |
| 115 contantly changed to constantly |
| 130 Ierland change to Ireland |
| 150 battle-ships changed to battleships |
| 152 BREAD-STUFFS changed to BREADSTUFFS |
| 162 duplicated "from" deleted |
| 163 bread-stuffs change to breadstuffs |
| 205 June, 1898 changed to June 30, 1898 |
| 208 proportiona t changed to proportion at|
| 223 duplicated "in" deleted |
| 258 typewritten changed to type-written |
| 350 everyday changed to every-day |
| 384 comma added after figures |
| 389 colored changed to coloured |
| 390 nessary changed to necessary |
+------------------------------------------------+

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