The Continental Monthly, Vol. 6, No 2, August, 1864

V >> Various >> The Continental Monthly, Vol. 6, No 2, August, 1864

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18

The proportion of mounted troops in an army varies according to the
nature of the country which is the theatre of military operations. In a
level country it should be about one fourth or one fifth, while in one
that is mountainous, it should not be greater than a tenth. As a general
rule, improvements in firearms have produced a decrease in the
proportion of cavalry and lessened its importance. When artillery was
introduced, the cavaliers, who composed the Middle Age armies
exclusively, commenced to disappear; knighthood passed out of existence,
being superseded by mercenary bands. Infantry gradually assumed
importance, which has constantly increased, until it has now attained
the vast predominance. This has not only caused a general diminution of
the proportion of cavalry, but has entailed on the Governments of Europe
the necessity of keeping their cavalry service always at its maximum, so
that the mounted troops may be perfect in their drill; whereas infantry
troops can acquire comparative proficiency in a few months.

We will give a brief description of the different classes of cavalry,
and close our subject by some remarks on the operation of this arm of
service in our civil war.

The regiments raised by Prince Maurice, of Orange, above referred to,
were the first known as _cuirassiers_, on account of the cuirasses which
they wore for defence. All defensive armor is now being laid aside.

_Dragoons_ originally were a class of soldiers who operated both on foot
and mounted. They are supposed to take their name from a kind of firearm
called a 'dragon.' In modern practice dragoons are almost entirely used
as cavalry, and rarely have recourse to any extended service on foot.
The denomination 'dragoons' has recently been abolished from our
service.

_Carabineers_ were at first some Basque and Gascon horsemen in the
French service, whose peculiarly distinguishing characteristic was a
skilful use in the saddle of a short firearm.

_Hussars_ originated in Hungary, taking their denomination from the word
_husz_, which signifies twenty, and _ar_, pay--every twentieth man being
required by the state to enter into service. From their origin they were
distinguished for the celerity of their movements and their devotion to
fine costumes.

The _hulans_ were a species of Polish light cavalry, bearing lances, and
taking their name from their commander--a nobleman named Huland.

_Chasseurs_ are French regiments, designed chiefly to act as scouts and
skirmishers. The _chasseurs d'Afrique_ are cavalry which have been
trained in Algeria, and have become exceedingly expert through conflicts
with the Arabs. The _spahis_ are Arab cavalry, in the French service,
and are such admirable riders that they will charge over all kinds of
ground, and dash upon a foe who judges himself secure amid rocks or
trees or ditches.

At the commencement of the war the rebel cavalry was superior to that
furnished by the North. For this there were many reasons. Southern
plantation life had accustomed the aristocratic youth to the saddle, and
great attention was bestowed on the training of horses. At the North the
number of skilled riders was comparatively few. Gradually, however,
Northern energy, endurance, and patient discipline began to tell, and
the time soon arrived when the Southern cavalry were invariably driven,
especially in sabre charges, to which Southerners have great aversion.
At present, on account of the scarcity of horses, the difficulty of
supplying forage, and the loss of so many gay youths of the chivalry,
the Southern, cavalry has dwindled into such a condition as to be no
longer formidable.

The service of the cavalry in both armies during the war has been
exclusively as light cavalry--scouting, picketing, raiding, etc. Its
combats have been with forces of its own arm. No commander has yet
succeeded in assisting to determine the issue of a pitched battle by the
charges of his mounted troops. Our cavalry have rendered, however,
brilliant and invaluable services in protecting the rear and flanks of
the armies, and by their magnificent raiding expeditions into the
enemy's country, destroying his supplies, injuring his communications,
diverting his forces, and liberating his slaves. No sufficient accounts
of such expeditions and of the numerous cavalry conflicts have been
published; yet they are very desirable. They would furnish most
interesting narratives, and be a valuable contribution not only to the
history of the times, but to the history of warfare; for the operations
of the cavalry in this war constitute a new era in the history of this
branch of military service. Unless care is exercised to procure such
narratives, our posterity will never know anything of many battle fields
where fought and fell brave troopers from every Northern State.

The chief duties of officers belonging to the _corps of engineers_, when
connected with an army acting in the field, are the supervision of
routes of communication, the laying of bridges, the selection of
positions for fortifications, and the indication of the proper character
of works to be constructed. Should a siege occur, a new and very
important class of duties devolves on them, relating to the trenches,
saps, batteries, etc.

Not only is there in Virginia a lack of good roads, but the numerous
streams have few or no bridges. In many cases where bridges have
existed, one or the other of the contending armies has destroyed them to
impede the march of its opponents. Streams which have an average depth
of three or four feet are, however, generally without bridges, except
where crossed by some turnpike, the common country roads mostly leading
to fords. The famous Bull Run is an example. There were but two or three
bridges over this stream in the space of country penetrated by the roads
generally pursued by our army in advancing or retreating, and these have
been several times destroyed and rebuilt. The stream varies from two to
six feet in depth--the fords being at places of favorable depth, and
where the bottom is gravelly and the banks sloping. Often such streams
as this, and indeed smaller ones, become immensely swelled in volume by
storms, so that a comparatively insignificant rivulet might greatly
delay the march of an army, if means for quickly crossing should not be
provided. The general depth of a ford which a large force, with its
appurtenances, can safely cross, is about three feet, and even then the
bottom should be good and the current gentle. With a greater depth of
water, the men are likely to wet their cartridge boxes, or be swept off
their feet. There is a small stream about three miles from Alexandria,
crossing the Little River turnpike, which has never been bridged, and
which was once so suddenly swollen by rain that all the artillery and
wagons of a corps were obliged to wait about twelve hours for its
subsidence. The mules of some wagons driven into it were swept away.
Fords, unless of the best bottom, are rendered impassable after a small
portion of the wagons and artillery of an army have crossed them--the
gravel being cut through into the underlying clay, and the banks
converted into sloughs by the dripping of water from the animals and
wheels.

A very amusing scene was presented at the crossing of Hazel River (a
branch of the Rappahannock) last fall, when the Army of the Potomac
first marched to Culpepper. The stream was at least three feet deep,
and at various places four--the current very rapid--the bottom filled
with large stones, and the banks steep, except where a narrow road had
been cut for the wagons. The men adopted various expedients for
crossing. Some went in boldly all accoutred; some took off shoes and
stockings, and carefully rolled up their trousers; others (and they were
the wisest) divested themselves of all their lower clothing. The long
column struggled as best it could through the water, and occasionally,
amid vociferous shouts, those who had been careful to roll up their
trousers would step into a hole up to the middle; others, who had taken
still more precautions, would stumble over a stone and pitch headlong
into the roaring waters, dropping their guns, and splashing vainly about
with their heavy knapsacks, in the endeavor to regain a footing, until
some of their comrades righted them; and others, after getting over
safely, would slip back from the sandy bank, and take an involuntary
immersion. Some clung to the rear of the wagons, but in the middle of
the stream the mules would become fractious, or the wagon would get
jammed against a stone, and the unfortunate passengers were compelled to
drop off and wade ashore, greeted by roars of derisive laughter. On such
occasions soldiers give full play to their humor. They accept the
hardships with good nature, and make the best of any ridiculous incident
that may happen. At the time referred to, many conscripts had just
joined the ranks, and cries resounded everywhere among the old soldiers:
'Hello, conscripts, how do you like this?' 'What d'ye think of sogering
now?' 'This is nothing. You'll have to go in up to yer neck next time.'

Generally, when the exigencies of the march will permit, bridges are
made over such streams, either by the engineers of the army, or
detachments from the various corps which are passing upon the roads.
They are simple 'corduroy bridges,' and can be laid very expeditiously.
Two or three piers of stones and logs are placed in the stream, string
pieces are stretched upon them, and cross pieces of small round logs
laid down for the flooring. The most extensive bridges of this kind used
by the Army of the Potomac were those over the Chickahominy in the
Peninsular campaign. 'Sumner's bridge,' by which reinforcements crossed
at the battle of Fair Oaks, was laid in this manner. Of course such
bridges are liable to be carried away and to be easily destroyed. Some
of the bridges over the Chickahominy were laid much more thoroughly.
'Cribs' of logs were piled in cob-house fashion, pinned together, and
sunk vertically in the stream. Then string pieces and the flooring were
laid, the whole covered with brush and dirt. Men worked at these bridges
up to the waist in water for many days in succession.

Military art has devised many expedients for bridging streams, and use
is made of any facilities that may be at hand for constructing the means
of passage; but the only organized bridge trains which move with the
army are those which carry the pontoons. Of these there are various
kinds, made of wood, of corrugated iron, and of india rubber stretched
over frames. But the wooden pontoon boats are most in use. They can be
placed in a river and the flooring laid upon them with great rapidity.
Several very fine bridges have been thus constructed--among them may be
mentioned the one at the mouth of the Chickahominy, across which General
McClellan's army marched in retreating from Harrison's Landing. It was
about a mile long, and was constructed in a few hours.

To cross a river under the fire of an enemy is one of the most difficult
operations in warfare. Yet it has been frequently accomplished by our
armies. The crossing of the Rappahannock by General Burnside's army,
previous to the great battle of Fredericksburg, in December, 1862, is
one of the most remarkable instances of the kind during the war. The
rebel rifle pits lined the southern bank, and the fire from them
prevented our engineers from approaching--the river being only about
seventy-five yards wide. For a long time our artillery failed to drive
the rebels away. About noon of the day on which the crossing was made,
General Burnside ordered a concentration of fire on Fredericksburg, in
the houses of which place the rebels had concealed their forces. A
hundred guns, hurling shot and shell into every building and street of
the city, soon riddled it; but the obstinate foes hid themselves in the
cellars till the storm was over, and then emerged defiantly. They were
only dislodged by sending over a battalion in boats to attack them in
flank, when they retreated, and the bridges were laid.

It is impossible to explain in articles of this character the mysteries
of intrenchment and fortification, so that they will be comprehensible.
A few notes, however, on some of the principal terms constantly
employed, may be found useful and interesting.

_Rifle pits_--as the term is now generally used--are small embankments,
made by throwing up dirt from an excavation _inside_. They can be
erected quickly, for it will be seen that those behind them have the
advantage, not only of the height of the embankment, but also of the
depth of the ditch. Thus an excavation of two feet would give a
protection of _four_ feet. This is the ordinary rifle pit, but when time
permits it receives many improvements.

_Breastworks_ are any erections of logs, dirt, etc., raised breast high,
to shelter the men behind them.

An _abatis_ consists of obstructions placed in front of a work to form
obstacles to a storming party. The most convenient method of forming it
is to cut down trees and allow them to lie helterskelter. When there is
time, the trees are laid with the butts toward the work, and the
branches outward--the small limbs being removed, and the ends of the
remainder sharpened.

[Illustration]

A _redan_ is a letter V, with the point toward the enemy, and is used
generally to cover the heads of bridges, etc.

[Illustration]

A _lunette_ is the redan with flanking wings.

[Illustration]

A _redoubt_ is an enclosed parallelogram.

[Illustration]

These works are very imperfect, because they have exposed points. The
angles are not protected by the fire from the sides. To remedy this
difficulty, the next most usual work is the _star fort_, made in the
form of a regular or irregular star. It will be perceived that the fire
from the sides covers the angles.

The next and still more improved form of work is the bastioned fort,
which consists of projecting bastions at the corners, the fire from
which enfilades the ditches.

The following is a diagram of a vertical section of the parapet and
ditch used in all fully constructed field works:

[Illustration:

A B is the slope of the banquette.

B C head of the banquette, or place where the men stand to deliver
their fire.

C D the interior slope of the parapet.

D E superior slope of the same.

F G the berme, or place left to prevent the parapet from washing
down into the ditch.

G H the scarp or interior wall of the ditch.

H I the bottom of the ditch.

I K the counterscarp.

L M N the glacis, which, except the abatis near the ditch, is left
free and open, so as to expose the assailants to the fire from the
parapet.

The proportions and angles of all the lines given are fixed
according to mathematical rules.]

The operations of a siege present many incidents of great interest; but
we can do nothing more in this article than illustrate the methods in
which the approaches are made to the works the capture of which is
designed. When reconnoissances have established the conclusion that the
works of an enemy cannot be carried by assault, the lines of the
investing army are advanced as near to them as is compatible with
safety; advantage is then taken of the opportunities afforded by the
ground to cover working parties, which are thrown forward to the place
fixed for the first parallel; sometimes these parties can commence their
work only at night. The parallel is only a deep trench with the dirt
thrown toward the enemy; and after the excavation has progressed, the
trench is occupied by parties of troops to resist any sorties of the
enemy, and to prevent attempts against the batteries established behind
the parallel.

The first parallel being completed, zigzag excavations are made toward
the front to cover the passage of men who proceed to dig the second
parallel. Meanwhile the batteries have commenced to play, and riflemen
have been advanced in trenches at convenient places, whose fire annoys
the gunners of the enemy. The second parallel being made, the batteries
are moved up to it, and the third parallel is proceeded with in a manner
similar to that used for the second.

We give below a rough diagram of these operations:

[Illustration:

A B C D E is the work of the enemy to be besieged. The working parties
advance by the zigzag paths M N and O to the position chosen for the
first parallel, K L. At the proper time they proceed by the zigzag paths
to the second parallel, H I, and then to the third, F G. When this is
reached, the enemy's work can generally be carried by storm, unless
already evacuated, for _ceteris paribus_ the advantages generally lie
with the besieging party. The zigzags are called _boyaux_, and they are
dug in the form represented, so that the bank of earth thrown up may be
always in front of them. Were they in straight lines this could not be.

The above refers exclusively to the siege of a field work. The
principles for besieging a walled fort or a fortified town are the same,
but the operations are much more complicated.]

LITERARY NOTICES.

Popular Edition. RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION. By AUGUSTIN
COCHIN, Ex-Maire and Municipal Councillor of Paris. Work
crowned by the Institute of France (Academie Francaise). Translated
by MARY L. BOOTH, Translator of Count de Gasparin's work
on America, etc. Fourth thousand. Boston: Walker, Wise & Co., 245
Washington street. 1864.

A remarkable book, indicative of a new era in the discussion of social,
religious, political, and economical questions. Prejudice, misstatement,
and fanaticism are apparently so opposed to the clear, candid mind of
the author, that he has needed no effort to avoid them, and in their
stead give us simple truth, broad views of men and things, and the
highest conceptions of duty and charity, together with the nicest
consideration of the rights and material interests, even the local
prejudices and misconceptions, of our fellow mortals. He shows clearly
that a _moral_ wrong can never long tend to _material_ advantage, and
that the laws of _society_ cannot be made ultimately to triumph over the
laws of _nature_; neither, in general, can a wrong be righted without
some suffering by way of expiation.

Although filled with statistical details, the work cannot fail to be
intensely interesting to the general reader. Lofty, hopeful, rational,
and yet progressive in its tone, it is calculated to do great good, not
only through the useful information and instructive generalizations it
makes known, but also as a model of right feeling, and consequent good
breeding, in its peculiar sphere.

The chapters upon the sugar question are wonderfully lucid and
convincing. Their bearing upon mooted points of political economy
recommend them to the study of all interested in that intricate subject.
The distressing relations necessarily existing between slavery and
religious instruction are also plainly set forth, and the general
conclusion of the book (that 'emancipation' is not only possible, but
most expedient, and that, with certain care upon the part of the
Government and of slave owners, an immediate and simultaneous liberation
is likely to breed fewer disturbances and less evil than gradual
disenthralment) seems to be rapidly gaining ground in the convictions of
our own countrymen. The conscience, and prophetic dreams of priests,
women, and poets, have long given assurance of such results, but the
world, of course, required definite experience and practical essays
before instituting any extensive course of action in that direction.

'A council held in the city of London in 1102, under the presidency
of St. Anselm, interdicted trade in slaves. This was eight hundred
years before the same object was debated in the same city before
Parliament. In 1780, Thomas Clarkson proposed to abolish the slave
trade. In 1787, Wilberforce renewed the proposition. Seven times
presented from 1793 to 1799, the bill seven times failed.
Successively laid over, it triumphed at length in 1806 and 1807.
All the Christian nations followed this memorable example. At the
Congress of Vienna, all the Powers pledged themselves to unite
their efforts to obtain _the entire and final abolition of a
traffic so odious and so loudly reproved by the laws of religion
and nature_. The slave trade was abolished in 1808 by the American
United States; in 1811, by Denmark, Portugal, and Chili; in 1813,
by Sweden; in 1814 and 1815, by Holland; in 1815, by France; in
1822, by Spain. In this same year, 1822, Wilberforce attacked
slavery after the slave trade, and won over public opinion by
appeals and repeated meetings, while his friend Mr. Buxton proposed
emancipation in Parliament. The Emancipation Bill was presented in
1833. On the 1st of August, 1834, slavery ceased to sully the soil
of the English colonies. In 1846, Sweden, in 1847, Denmark,
Uruguay, Wallachia, and Tunis, obeyed the same impulse, which
France followed in 1848, Portugal in 1856, and which Holland
promised to imitate in 1860. An earnest movement agitated Brazil.'

In Poland, the serfdom of the peasants was never sanctioned by law, but
existed in later times by reason of exception and abuse. Stanislas
Leszczynski, King of Poland, in 1720 raised his voice in favor of the
peasant population; the same principles were in 1768 defended, sword in
hand, by the Confederation of Bar, discussed in the diets of 1776, 1780,
1788, and finally adopted by the famous Constituent Assembly of 1791.
Thadeus Kosciuszko (May 7th, 1794), then Dictator of Poland, issued a
document giving entire personal liberty to all serfs; and on the 22d of
January, 1863, the members of the 'National Polish Government' decreed
that the peasants were not only free, but were entitled to a certain
portion of land, of which they should be the sole proprietors. In 1861,
Russia emancipated all serfs within her borders. In the United States,
the stern 'logic of events' seems to be rapidly bringing about similar
results, although indeed 'slavery' and 'serfdom' should never be
mentioned together, being so essentially different; the one the
possession of the _man_, the other merely the ownership of his _labor_
or of a _portion of its results_.

We cannot better conclude than by giving the following extract from the
Introduction of M. Cochin, who, by the way, is a man of good family and
ample fortune, an eminent publicist, and a Catholic of the school of
Lacordaire, Montalembert, Monseigneur d'Orleans, and the Prince de
Broglie:

'It was once exclaimed, Perish the colonies, rather than a
principle! The principle has not perished, the colonies have not
perished.

'It is not correct that interests should yield to principles;
between legitimate interests and true principles, harmony is
infallible; this is truth. Those who look only to interests are
sooner or later deceived in their calculations; those who,
exclusively occupied with principles, are generous without being
practical, cease to be generous, for they lead the cause which they
serve to certain destruction. It is the will of God that realities
should mingle with ideas, and that material obstacles should compel
the purchase of progress by toil.'

The publishers tell us that, a large demand for this work having arisen,
they have issued this 'popular edition,' wherein the figures in the
original are given as nearly as possible in the American currencies,
measures, etc.

STUMBLING BLOCKS. By GAIL HAMILTON, Author of
'Country Living and Country Thinking,' 'Gala Days,' etc. Boston:
Ticknor & Fields, For sale by D. Appleton & Co., New York.

Gail Hamilton's religious position gives her vast advantages. She is
thoroughly orthodox, Calvinistic, and Congregational, and being neither
Unitarian nor Catholic, will not be regarded as one of the 'Suspect' by
the great community of the so-called evangelical Christians. But she is
a bold, independent thinker, and spurns the trammels of bigotry and
prescription. No party spirit blinds her clear vision, no sectarian
prejudice vitiates her statements of the creeds of others, or induces
her to veil the faults and follies of those worshipping in the same
church with herself. Ministers are by no means immaculate saints in her
eyes. Seating herself in the pews, she preaches better sermons to them
than they are in the habit of giving to their people; taking possession
of their pulpits, she shows them what might and ought to be done from
that throne of power. Petty vanities, subjective experiences recorded in
morbid journals, religious frames of mind frequently dwelt upon until
the tortured self-watcher is driven into insanity, fall under her
scathing rebuke.

This volume deals chiefly with the shortcomings of the orthodox
religious world. Its faults of temper, its repulsive manners, its custom
of making home unlovely, its distaste of innocent amusement, its habits
of censure, its self-sufficiency and pharisaical character, are touched
with a caustic but healing power. Only the hand of a friend could have
done this thing. No point of doctrine is questioned, no principle of
faith invaded, no charity wounded. She probes in love--her object is
cure. This book is fresh and vigorous, worth thousands of lifeless
sermons and unprofitable religious journals. No prejudice or falsehood
is spared, though it may have taken refuge in the very sanctuary. Her
every shaft is well directed, every arrow powerfully sent, every shot
strikes the bull's eye in its centre. Her words are hailstones rattling
fell and fast, but melt into and soften the heart on which they fall.
Delusions disappear, cant and want of courtesy become odious, shams grow
shameful, while all lovely things bloom lovelier in the light of truth
emanating from this large brain, and poured through this living heart.
We bask in its sunshine, growing strong and happy as we read. Christian
fervor and charity, love for Redeemer and redeemed, for saint and
sinner, cheer us through all these well-deserved denunciations. Her
style is clear and rapid, her matter of daily and urgent import, her
characterizations of classes and types of men worthy of La Bruyere
himself, her satire melts into humor, her humor into pathos. She has
been attacked by some of the religious papers, and has herein taken a
true Christian and magnanimous revenge. O Gail! the clergy should open
wide their hearts to take you in, their gifted child, the iconoclast
within the temple, the faithful disciple of Christ, the lover of purity
and truth!

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18