Scientific American Supplement, No. 417

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[Illustration]

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SILAS' CHRONOPHORE.

In many industries there are operations that have to be repeated
at regular intervals, and, for this reason, the construction of an
apparatus for giving a signal, not only at the hour fixed, but also at
equal intervals, is a matter of interest. The question of doing this has
been solved in a very elegant way by Mr. Silas in the invention of the
apparatus which we represent in Fig. 1. It consists of a clock whose
dial is provided with a series of small pins. The hands are insulated
from the case and communicate with one of the poles of a pile contained
in the box. The case is connected with the other pole. A small vibrating
bell is interposed in the circuit. If it be desired to obtain a signal
at a certain hour, the corresponding pin is inserted, and the hand
upon touching this closes the circuit, and the bell rings. The bell is
likewise inclosed within the box. There are two rows of pins--one of
them for hours, and the other for minutes. They are spaced according to
requirements. In the model exhibited by the house Breguet, at the Vienna
Exhibition, there were 24 pins for minutes and 12 for hours. Fig. 2
gives a section of the dial. It will be seen that the hands are provided
at the extremity with a small spring, r, which is itself provided with
a small platinum contact, p. The pins also carry a small platinum or
silver point, a. In front of the box there will be observed a small
commutator, M, (Fig. 1). The use of this is indicated in the diagram
(Fig. 3). It will be seen that, according as the plug, B, is introduced
into the aperture to the left or right, the bell. S, will operate as an
ordinary vibrator, or give but a single stroke.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SILAS' CHRONOPHORE.]

P is the pile; C is the dial; and A is the commutator.

It is evident that this apparatus will likewise be able to render
services in scientific researches and laboratory operations, by sparing
the operator the trouble of continually consulting his watch.--_La
Lumiere Electrique_.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

* * * * *

[THE GARDEN.]

THE ZELKOWAS.

Two of the three species which form the subject of this article are not
only highly ornamental, but also valuable timber trees. Until recently
they were considered to belong to the genus Planera, which, however,
consists of but a single New World species; now, they properly
constitute a distinct genus, viz., Zelkova, which differs materially
from the true Planer tree in the structure of the fruit, etc. Z.
crenata, from the Caucasus, and Z. acuminata, from Japan, are quick
growing, handsome trees, with smooth bark not unlike that of beech or
hornbeam; it is only when the trees are old that the bark is cast off in
rather large sized plates, as is the case with the planes. The habit of
both is somewhat peculiar; in Z. crenata especially there is a decided
tendency for all the main branches to be given off from one point;
these, too, do not spread, as for instance do those of the elm or beech,
but each forms an acute angle with the center of the tree. The trunks
are more columnar than those of almost all other hardy trees. Their
distinct and graceful habit renders them wonderfully well adapted for
planting for effect, either singly or in groups. The flowers, like those
of the elm, are produced before the leaves are developed; in color they
are greenish brown, and smell like those of the elder. It does not
appear that fruits have yet been ripened in England. All the Zelkowas
are easily propagated by layers or by grafting on the common elm.

[Illustration: YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE (21 FEET HIGH)]

_Zelkcova crenata_--The Caucasian Zelkowa is a native of the country
lying between the Black and the Caspian Sea between latitudes 35 deg. and
47 deg. of the north of Persia and Georgia. According to Loudon, it was
introduced to this country in 1760, and it appears to have been planted
both at Kew and Syon at about that date. A very full account of the
history, etc., of the Zelkowa, from which Loudon largely quotes, was
presented to the French Academy of Science by Michaux the younger, who
speaks highly of the value of the tree. In this he is fully corroborated
by Mirbel and Desfontaine, on whom devolved the duty of reporting on
this memoir. They say that it attains a size equal to that of the
largest trees of French forests, and recommend its being largely
planted. They particularly mention its suitability for roadside avenues,
and affirm that its leaves are never devoured by caterpillars, and that
the stems are not subject, to the canker which frequently ruins the elm.
The name Orme de Siberie, which is or was commonly applied to Zelkova
crenata in French books and gardens, is doubly wrong, for the tree is
neither an elm nor is it native of Siberia. In 1782 Michaux, the father
of the author of the paper above mentioned, undertook, under the
auspices, of a Monsieur (afterward Louis XVIII.), a journey into Persia,
in order to make botanical researches.

[Illustration: FOLIAGE OF A YOUNG ZELKOWA TREE, WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT.]

"Having left Ispahan, in order to explore the province of Ghilan, he
found this tree in the forests which he traversed before arriving
at Recht, a town situated on the Caspian Sea. In this town he had
opportunities of remarking the use made of the wood, and of judging how
highly it was appreciated by the inhabitants." The first tree introduced
into Europe appears to have been planted by M. Lemonnier, Professor of
Botany in the Jardin des Plautes, etc., in his garden near Versailles.
This garden was destroyed in 1820, and the dimensions of the tree
when it was cut down were as follows: Height 70 feet, trunk 7 feet in
circumference at 5 feet from the ground. The bole of the trunk was 20
feet in length and of nearly uniform thickness; and the proportion of
heart-wood to sap-wood was about three quarters of its diameter. This
tree was about fifty years old, but was still in a growing state and in
vigorous health. The oldest tree existing in France at the time of the
publication of Loudon's great work, was one in the Jardin des Plantes,
which in 1831 was about 60 feet high. It was planted in 1786 (when a
sucker of four years old), about the same time as the limes which form
the grand avenue called the Allee de Buffon. "There is, however, a much
larger Zelkowa on an estate of M. le Comte de Dijon, an enthusiastic
planter of exotic trees, at Podenas, near Nerac, in the department of
the Lot et Garonne. This fine tree was planted in 1789, and on the 20th
of January, 1831. it measured nearly 80 feet high, and the trunk was
nearly 3 feet in diameter at 3 feet from the ground." A drawing of this
tree, made by the count in the autumn of that year, was lent to Loudon
by Michaux, and the engraving prepared from that sketch (on a scale of 1
inch to 12 feet) is herewith reproduced. At Kew the largest tree is one
near the herbarium (a larger one had to be cut down when the herbarium
was enlarged some years ago, and a section of the trunk is exhibited
in Museum No. 3). Its present dimensions are: height, 62 feet;
circumference of stem at 1 foot from the ground, 9 feet 8 inches; ditto
at ground level, 10 feet; Height of stem from ground to branches, 7
feet; diameter of head, 46 feet. The general habit of the tree is quite
that as represented in the engraving of the specimen at Podenas. The
measurements of the large tree at Syon House were, in 1834, according to
Loudon: Height, 54 feet; circumference of of stem, 6 feet 9 inches;
and diameter of head, 34 feet; the present dimensions, for which I am
indebted to Mr. Woodbridge, are: Height, 76 feet; girth of trunk at 21/2
feet from ground, 10 feet; spread of branches, 36 feet.

[Illustration: FLOWERS AND FRUIT OF ZELKOVA CRENATA (_Planera
Richardi_).]

IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova crenata, Spach in Ann. des Sc. nat. 2d ser. 15,
p. 358. D. C. Prodromus, xvii., 165 Rhamnus ulmoides, Gueldenst. It.,
p. 313. R carpinifolius, Pall. Fl Rossica, 2 p. 24, tab. 10. Ulmus
polygama, L C. Richard in Mem. Acad. des Sciences de Paris, ann. 1781.
Planera Richardi, Michx. Fl. bor. Amer. 2, p. 248; C.A. Meyer, Enumer.
Causas. Casp., n. 354; Dunal in Bulletin Soc. cent d'Agricult. de
l'Herault. ann. 1841, 299, 303, et ann. 1843, 225, 236. Loudon, Arbor,
et Frut. Brit., vol. 3, p. 1409. Planera crenata, Desf. Cat. Hort. Paris
et hortul, fere omnium. Michaux fil. Mem. sur le Zelkowa, 1831. Planera
carpinifolia, Watson, Dend. Brit., t. 106. Koch Dendrologie, zweit
theil, sweit. Abtheil. p. 425.

[Illustration: ZELKOWA TREE AT PODENAS

Showing peculiar habit of branching. In old trees the effect is very
remarkable in winter as at Oxford, Versailles (_Petit Trianon_) and
Syon.]

_Var pendula_ (the weeping Zelkowa).--This is a form of which I do not
know the origin or history. It is simply a weeping variety of the common
Zelkowa. I first saw it in the Isleworth Nurseries of Messrs. C. Lee &
Son, and a specimen presented by them to Kew for the aboretum is now
growing freely. I suspect that the Zelkova crenata var. repens of M.
Lavallee's "Aboretum Segrezianum" and the Planera repens of foreign
catalogues generally are identical with the variety now mentioned under
the name it bears in the establishment of Messrs. Lee & Son.

[Illustration: FOLIAGE OF A FULL-GROWN ZELKOWA TREE.]

_Z. acuminata_ is one of the most useful and valuable of Japanese timber
trees. It was found near Yeddo by the late Mr. John Gould Veitch, and
was sent out by the firm of Messrs. J. Veitch & Sons. Maximowicz also
found the tree in Japan, and introduced it to the Imperial Botanic
Gardens of St. Petersburg, from whence both seeds and plants were
liberally distributed. In the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ for 1862 Dr.
Lindley writes as follows: "A noble deciduous tree, discovered near
Yeddo by Mr. J. G. Veitch, 90 feet to 100 feet in height, with a
remarkably straight stem. In aspect it resembles an elm. We understand
that a plank in the Exotic Nursery, where it has been raised, measures 3
feet 3 inches across. Mr. Veitch informs us that it is one of the most
useful timber trees in Japan. Its long, taper-pointed leaves, with
coarse, very sharp serratures, appear to distinguish it satisfactorily
from the P. Richardi of the northwest of Asia." There seems to be no
doubt as to the perfect hardiness of the Japanese Zelkowa in Britain,
and it is decidedly well worth growing as an ornamental tree apart
from its probable value as a timber producer. A correspondent in the
periodical just mentioned writes, in 1873, p. 1142, under the signature
of "C.P.": "At Stewkley Grange it does fairly well; better than most
other trees. In a very exposed situation it grew 3 feet 5 inches last
year, and was 14 feet 5 inches high when I measured it in November;
girth at ground, 83/4 inches; at 3 feet, 5 inches." The leaves vary in
size a good deal on the short twiggy branches, being from 3 inches to
31/2 inches in length and 11/4 inches to 11/2 inches in width, while those on
vigorous shoots attain a length of 5 inches, with a width of about half
the length. They are slightly hairy on both surfaces. The long acuminate
points, the sharper serratures, the more numerous nerves (nine to
fourteen in number), and the more papery texture distinguish Z.
acuminata easily from its Caucasian relative, Z. crenata. The foliage,
too, seems to be retained on the trees in autumn longer than that of the
species just named; in color it is a dull green above and a brighter
glossy green beneath. The timber is very valuable, being exceedingly
hard and capable of a very fine polish. In Japan it is used in the
construction of houses, ships, and in high class cabinet work. In case
99, Museum No. 1 at Kew, there is a selection of small useful and
ornamental articles made in Japan of Keyaki wood. Those manufactured
from ornamental Keyaki (which is simply gnarled stems or roots, or
pieces cut tangentially), and coated with the transparent lacquer for
which the Japanese an so famous, are particularly handsome. In the
museum library is also a book, the Japanese title of which is given
below--"Handbook of Useful Woods," by E. Kinch. Professor at the
Imperial College of Agriculture, at Tokio, Japan. This work contains
transverse and longitudinal sections of one hundred Japanese woods, and
numbers 45 and 46 represent Z. acuminata. It would be worth the while of
those who are interested in the introduction and cultivation of timber
trees in temperate climates to procure Kinch's handbook.

IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova acuminata, D.C. Prodr., xvii., 166; Z. Keaki,
Maxim. Mel. biol. vol. ix, p. 21. Planera acuminata, Lindl. in Gard.
Chron. 1862, 428; Regel, "Gartenflora" 1863, p. 56. P Japonica, Miq.
ann. Mus. Ludg Bat iii., 66; Kinch. Yuyo Mokuzai Shoran, 45, 46. P.
Keaki, Koch Dendrol. zweit. theil zweit Abtheil, 427. P. dentata
japonica, Hort. P. Kaki, Hort.

[Illustration: FLOWERING TWIG OF PLANERA GMELINI.]

_Z. cretica_ is a pretty, small foliaged tree, from 15 to 20 feet in
height. The ovate crenate leaves, which measure from an inch or even
less, to one inch and a half in length by about half the length in
breadth, are leathery, dark green above, grayish above. They are hairy
on both surfaces, the underside being most densely clothed, and the
twigs, too, are thickly covered with short grayish hairs. This species,
which is a native of Crete, is not at present in the Kew collection; its
name, however, if given in M. Lavallee's catalogue, "Enumeration des
Arbres et Arbris Cultives a Segrez" (Seine-et-Oise).

[Illustration: OLD SPECIMEN OF ZELKOWA TREE IN SUMMER FOLIAGE,
CONCEALING FORM OF BRANCHING.]

IDENTIFICATION.--Zelkova cretica. Spach in Suit a Buff, ii, p. 121.
Ulmus Abelicea, Sibth & Sm. Prod. Fl., Graeca, i., p. 172. Planera
Abelicea Roem. & Schltz. Syst., vi. p. 304; Planch, in Ann. des Sc. Nat.
1848, p. 282. Abelicea cretica, Smith in Trans. Linn. Sov., ix., 126.

I have seen no specimens of the Zelkova stipulacea of Franchet and
Savatier's "Enumeratio Plantarum Japonicarum," vol. ii., p. 489, and as
that seems to have been described from somewhat insufficient material,
and, moreover, does not appear to be in cultivation, I passed it over as
a doubtful plant.

GEORGE NICHOLSON.

Royal Gardens, Kew.

* * * * *

A NEW ENEMY OF THE BEE.

Prof. A.J. Cook, the eminent apiarist, calls attention to a new pest
which has made its appearance in many apiaries. After referring to the
fact that poultry and all other domestic animals of ten suffer serious
injury from the attacks of parasitic mites, and that even such household
stores as sugar, flour, and cheese are not from their ravages, he tells
of the discovery of a parasitic pest among bees. He says:

"During the last spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered
these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause of their
rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies were greatly reduced
in number of bees, and upon close observation found that the diseased or
failing colonies were covered with the mites. So small are these pests
that a score of them can take possession of a single bee and not be
crowded for room either. The lady states that the bees roll and scratch
in their vain attempts to rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights,
and finally, worried out, fall to the bottom of the hive, or go forth
to die on the outside. Mites are not true insects, but are the most
degraded of spiders. The sub-class _Arachnida_ are at once recognized by
their eight legs. The order of mites (_Accorina_), which includes the
wood-tick, cattle-tick, etc., and mites, are quickly told from the
higher orders--true spiders and scorpions--by their rounded bodies,
which appear like mere sacks, with little appearance of segmentation,
and their small, obscure heads. The mites alone, of all the
_Arachinida_, pass through a marked metamorphosis. Thus the young mite
has only six legs, while the mature form has eight. The bee mite is
very small, not more than one-fiftieth of an inch long. The female is
slightly longer than the male, and somewhat transparent. The color is
black, though the legs and more transparent areas of the female appear
yellowish. All the legs are fine jointed, slightly hairy, and each
tipped with two hooks or claws."

As to remedies, the Professor says that as what would kill the mites
would doubtless kill the bees, makes the question a difficult one. He
suggests, however, the frequent changing of the bees from one hive to
another, after which the emptied hives should be thoroughly scalded. He
thinks this course of treatment, persisted in, would effectually clean
them out.

* * * * *

CRYSTALLIZATION OF HONEY.

_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:

Seeing in your issue of October 13, 1883, an article on "Crystallization
in Extracted Honey," I beg leave to differ a little with the gentleman.
I have handled honey as an apiarist and dealer for ten years, and find
by actual experience that it has no tendency to crystallize in warm
weather; but on the contrary it will crystallize in cold weather,
and the colder the weather the harder the honey will get. I have had
colonies of bees starve when there was plenty of honey in the hives; it
was in extreme cold weather, there was not enough animal heat in the
bees to keep the honey from solidifying, hence the starvation of the
colonies.

To-day I removed with a thin paddle sixty pounds of honey from a large
stone jar where it had remained over one year. Last winter it was so
solid from crystallization, it could not be cut with a knife; in fact, I
broke a large, heavy knife in attempting to remove a small quantity.

As to honey becoming worthless from candying is a new idea to me, as I
have, whenever I wanted our crystallized honey in liquid form, treated
it to water bath, thereby bringing it to its natural state, in which
condition it would remain for an indefinite time, especially if
hermetically sealed. I never had any recrystallize after once having
been treated to the water bath; and the flavor of the honey was in no
way injured. I think the adding of glycerine to be entirely superfluous.

W.R. MILLER.

Polo, October 15.

* * * * *

AN EXTENSIVE SHEEP RANGE.

The little schooner Santa Rosa arrived in port from Santa Barbara a few
days ago. She comes up to this city twice a year to secure provisions,
clothing, lumber, etc., for use on Santa Rosa Island, being owned by the
great sheep raiser A.P. Moore, who owns the island and the 80,000 sheep
that exist upon it. The island is about 30 miles south of Santa Barbara,
and is 24 miles in length and 16 in breadth, and contains about 74,000
acres of land, which are admirably adapted to sheep raising. Last June,
Moore clipped 1,014 sacks of wool from these sheep, each sack containing
an average of 410 pounds of wool, making a total of 415,740 pounds,
which he sold at 27 cents a pound, bringing him in $112,349.80, or a
clear profit of over $80,000. This is said to be a low yield, so it is
evident that sheep raising there, when taking into consideration that
shearing takes place twice a year, and that a profit is made off the
sale of mutton, etc., is very profitable. The island is divided into
four quarters by fences running clear across at right angles, and the
sheep do not have to be herded like those ranging about the foothills.

Four men are employed regularly the year round to keep the ranch in
order, and to look after the sheep, and during the shearing time fifty
or more shearers are employed. These men secure forty or fifty days'
work, and the average number of sheep sheared in a day is about ninety,
for which five cents a clip is paid, thus $4.50 a day being made by each
man, or something over $200 for the season, or over $400 for ninety days
out of the year. Although the shearing of ninety sheep in a day is the
average, a great many will go as high as 110, and one man has been known
to shear 125.

Of course, every man tries to shear as many as he can, and, owing to
haste, frequently the animals are severely cut by the sharp shears. If
the wound is serious, the sheep immediately has its throat cut and is
turned into mutton and disposed of to the butchers, and the shearer, if
in the habit of frequently inflicting such wounds, is discharged. In the
shearing of these 80,000 sheep, a hundred or more are injured to such an
extent as to necessitate their being killed, but the wool and meat are
of course turned into profit.

Although no herding is necessary, about 200 or more trained goats are
kept on the island continually, which to all intents and purposes take
the place of the shepherd dogs so necessary in mountainous districts
where sheep are raised. Whenever the animals are removed from one
quarter to another, the man in charge takes out with him several of the
goats, exclaims in Spanish, "Cheva" (meaning sheep). The goat, through
its training, understands what is wanted, and immediately runs to the
band, and the sheep accept it as their leader, following wherever it
goes. The goat, in turn, follows the man to whatever point he wishes to
take the band.

To prevent the sheep from contracting disease, it is necessary to give
them a washing twice a year. Moore, having so many on hand, found it
necessary to invent some way to accomplish this whereby not so much
expense would be incurred and time wasted. After experimenting for some
time, he had a ditch dug 8 feet in depth, a little over 1 foot in width,
and 100 feet long. In this he put 600 gallons of water, 200 pounds of
sulphur, 100 pounds of lime, and 6 pounds of soda, all of which is
heated to 138 deg.. The goats lead the sheep into a corral or trap at one
end, and the animals are compelled to swim through to the further end,
thus securing a bath and taking their medicine at one and the same time.

The owner of the island and sheep, A.P. Moore, a few years ago purchased
the property from the widow of his deceased brother Henry, for $600,000.
Owing to ill health, he has rented it to his brother Lawrence for
$140,000 a year, and soon starts for Boston, where he will settle down
for the rest of his life. He still retains an interest in the Santa Cruz
Island ranch, which is about 25 miles southeast of Santa Barbara. This
island contains about 64,000 acres, and on it are 25,000 sheep. On
Catalina Island, 60 miles east of Santa Barbara, are 15,000 sheep, and
on Clementa Island, 80 miles east of that city, are 10,000 sheep. Forty
miles west of the same city is San Miguel, on which are 2,000 sheep.
Each one of these ranches has a sailing vessel to carry freight, etc.,
to and fro between the islands and the mainland, and they are kept busy
the greater part of the time.--_San Francisco Call_.

* * * * *

THE DISINFECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

At the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, London, Dr. Robert J. Lee recently
delivered a lecture on the above subject, illustrated by experiments.

The author remarked that he could not better open up his theme than
by explaining what was meant by disinfection. He would do so by an
illustration from Greek literature. When Achilles had slain Hector,
the body still lay on the plain of Troy for twelve days after; the
god Hermes found it there and went and told of it--"This, the twelfth
evening since he rested, untouched by worms, untainted by the air."
The Greek word for taint in this sense was _sepsis_, which meant
putrefaction, and from this we had the term "antiseptic," or that which
was opposed to or prevented putrefaction. The lecturer continued:

I have here in a test tube some water in which a small piece of meat was
placed a few days ago. The test tube has been in rather a warm room, and
the meat has begun to decompose. What has here taken place is the first
step in this inquiry. This has been the question at which scientific
men have been working, and from the study of which has come a valuable
addition to surgical knowledge associated with the name of Professor
Lister, and known as antiseptic. What happens to this meat, and what is
going on in the water which surrounds it? How long will it be before all
the smell of putrefaction has gone and the water is clear again? For
it does in time become clear, and instead of the meat we find a fine
powdery substance at the bottom of the test tube. It may take weeks
before this process is completed, depending on the rate at which it
goes on. Now, if we take a drop of this water and examine it with the
microscope, we find that it contains vast numbers of very small living
creatures or "organisms." They belong to the lowest forms of life, and
are of very simple shape, either very delicate narrow threads or rods or
globular bodies. The former are called bacteria, or staff-like bodies;
the latter, micrococci. They live upon the meat, and only disappear when
the meat is consumed. Then, as they die and fall to the bottom of the
test tube, the water clears again.

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