Scientific American Supplement, No. 363, December 16, 1882
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Various >> Scientific American Supplement, No. 363, December 16, 1882
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_Red Oxide of Copper_--This rather rare mineral is found in small
quantities in this mine, or near it, in the debris or outcrop. Perfect
crystals, which are of a dodecahedral or octahedral form, are fairly
abundant. They are difficult to distinguish, as they are generally
coated, or soiled at least, with malachite. The color proper is of
a brownish red, and the hardness about 4, although sometimes, it is
earthy, with an apparent hardness not over 2. The crystals are generally
about a quarter of an inch to a half of an inch in diameter, and found
inside the masses of malachite. When these are broken open, the red
copper oxide is readily distinguished, and may be separated or brought
into relief by carefully trimming away the malachite surrounding it as
its gravity (6) is much greater than malachite. When a piece of the last
is found which has a high gravity, it may be suspected and broken into,
as this species is much more valuable and rarer than the malachite
which is so abundant. It dissolves in acids like malachite, but without
effervescence, if it be freed from that mineral, and acts the same
before the blowpipe. Sometimes it may be found as an earthy substance,
but is difficult to distinguish from the red sandstone accompanyit,
which both varieties resemble, but which, not being soluble in the
acids, find having the blowpipe reactions, is thus characterized. This
red oxide of copper does not form a particularly showy cabinet specimen,
but its rarity and value fully compensate for a search after it. I have
found considerable of it here, and seen some little of it in place
remaining.
_Chrysorolla_.--This mineral, very abundant in this locality, resembles
malachite, but has a much bluer, lighter color, without the fibrous
structure so often present in malachite, and seldom in masses, it only
occurring as light druses and incrustations, some of which are very
beautiful, and make very fine cabinet specimens. Its hardness is less
than that of the other species, being under 3, and a specific gravity
of only 2, but as it frequently occurs mixed with them, is difficult to
distinguish. It does not dissolve in nitric acid, although that takes
the characteristic green color of a solution of nitrate of copper,
as from malachite or red oxide. This species is found all over this
locality, and a fine drused mass of it will form an excellent memento of
the trip.
_Copper Glance_.--This mineral is quite abundant in places here, but
fine crystals, even small, as it all is, are rare. That which I have
seen has been embedded in the loose rock above the mine, about a quarter
inch in diameter, and more or less disguised by a green coating of
chrysocolla. The color of the mineral itself is a glistening grayish
lead color, resembling chromite somewhat in appearance, but the crystals
of an entirely different shape, being highly modified or indistinct
rhombic prisms. The specific gravity is over 5, and the hardness 4.
Before the blowpipe on a piece of wood charcoal it gives off fumes of
sulphur, fuses, boils, and finally leaves a globule of copper. In nitric
acid it dissolves, but the sulphur in combination with it separates as
a white powder. A steel knife blade placed in this solution receives a
coating of copper known by its red color.
_Erubescite_--This mineral occurs massive in the rock here with the
other copper minerals, and is of a yellowish red color, more or less
tarnished to a light brown on its surface, Before the blowpipe on
charcoal it fuses, burns, and affords a globule of copper and iron,
which is attracted by the magnet. Its specific gravity is 5, hardness
3. It resembles somewhat the red oxide, but the low gravity, inferior
hardness, lighter color, and blowpipe reaction distinguish it. These
are the only copper minerals likely to be found at this mine, and the
following table and note will show their characteristics:
Name. Speci- Hardness Action of Action of Color. Form.
fic Blowpipe Heat. Hot Nitric
Gravity. Acid.
Mala- From 4 From 3 Decrepitates, Dissolves Pure Oil Fibrous,
chite to 4.5 to 4 but fuses with with Green. massive,
borax to a effer- or in-
green bead. vescence crusting.
Red 6 From 3.5 On charcoal Dissolves A deep Modified
Oxide to 4 yields a without brownish crystals.
globule of effer- red.
copper. vescence
Chryso- From 2 From 2 Infusible. Partly Bright Incrus-
colla to 2.3 to 3 soluble bluish tations.
green.
Copper 5 From 2.5 Fumes of Copper Grayish Modified
Glance to 3 sulphur and a soluble, Lead. rhombic
globule of sulphur prisms.
copper deposits
Erube- 5 From 3 Fumes of Partly Yellowish Massive.
scite to 3.5 sulphur and soluble red or
magnetic tarnished.
globule.
Malachite is characterized by its color from Copper Glance and Red Oxide
and Erubescite, and from Chrysocolla by the action of the acid, the
fibrous structure and blowpipe reaction, gravity, and hardness.
Red Oxide is distinguished from Erubescite, which it alone resembles,
by its darker color, higher specific gravity, and yielding a globule of
pure copper.
Chrysocolla is characterized by its low specific gravity, light color,
lack of fibrous structure, blowpipe reactions, and the acid.
Copper Glance is distinguished by its color, fumes of sulphur, and
globule of copper.
Erubescite is distinguished from Red Oxide, which it alone resembles, by
its lighter color, great solubility when pure, and yielding a magnetic
globule before the blowpipe in the hollow of a piece of wood charcoal,
which is used instead of platinum wire in this investigation.
* * * * *
ENTOMOLOGY.
[Footnote: From the _American Naturalist_, November, 1882.]
THE BUCKEYE LEAF STEM BORER.--In our account of the proceedings of the
entomological sub-section of the A.A.A.S., at the 1881 meeting (see
_American Naturalist_, 1881, p. 1009), we gave a short abstract of Mr.
E.W. Claypole's paper on the above insect, accepting the determination
of the species as _Sericoris instrutana_, and mentioning the fact that
the work of _Proteoteras aesculana_ Riley upon maple and buckeye was very
similar. A letter recently received from Mr. Claypole, prior to sending
his article to press, and some specimens which be had kindly submitted
to us, permit of some corrections and definite statements. We have a
single specimen in our collection, bred from a larva found feeding, in
1873, on the blossoms of buckeye, and identical with Mr. Claypole's
specimens, which are in too poor condition for description or positive
determination. With this material and with Mr Claypole's observations
and our own notes, the following facts are established:
1st. We have _Proteoteras aesculana_ boring in the terminal green twigs
of both maple and buckeye, in Missouri, and often producing a swelling
or pseudo-gall. Exceptionally it works in the leaf-stalk. It also feeds
on the samara of maple, as we reared the moth in June, 1881, from
larvae infesting these winged seeds that had been collected by Mr. A.J.
Wethersby, of Cincinnati, O.
2d. We have an allied species, boring in the leaf-stalk of buckeye,
in Ohio, as observed by Mr. Claypole. It bears some resemblance
to _Proteoteras aesculana_, but differs from it in the following
particulars, so far as can be ascertained from the poor material
examined: The primaries are shorter and more acuminate at apex.
Their general color is paler, with the dark markings less distinctly
separated. No distinct tufts of scales or knobs appear, and the
ocellated region is traversed by four or five dark longitudinal lines.
It would be difficult to distinguish it from a rubbed and faded specimen
of _aesculana_, were it not for the form of the wing, on which, however,
one dare not count too confidently. It probably belongs to the same
genus, and we would propose for it the name of _claypoleana_. The
larva is distinguished from that of _aesculana_ by having the minute
granulations of the skin smooth, whereas in the latter each granule has
a minute sharp point.
3d. _Sericoris instrutana_ is a totally different insect. Hence our
previous remarks as to the diversity of food-habit in this species have
no force--_C.V.R._
* * * * *
DEFOLIATION OF OAK TREES BY DRYOCAMPA SENATORIA IN PERRY COUNTY,
PA.--During the present autumn the woods and road-sides in this
neighborhood (New Bloomfield) present a singular appearance in
consequence of the ravages of the black and yellow larva of the above
species. It is more abundant, so I am informed, than it has ever been
before. In some places hardly any trees of the two species to which its
attack is here limited have escaped. These are the black or yellow oak
(_Q. tinctoria_) with its variety (_coccinea_), the scarlet oak and, the
scrub oak (_Q. ilicifolia_). These trees appear brown on the hill-sides
from a distance, in consequence of being altogether stripped of
their leaves. The sound of the falling frass from the thousands of
caterpillars resembles a shower of rain. They crawl in thousands over
the ground, ten or twelve being sometimes seen on a square yard. The
springs and pools are crowded with drowned specimens. They are equally
abundant in all parts of the county which I have visited during the
past week or two--the central and southeastern.--_E. W. Olaypole, New
Bloomfield, Pa_.
* * * * *
EFFICACY OF CHALCID EGG-PARASITES.--Egg-parasites are among the most
efficient destroyers of insects injurious to vegetation, since they kill
their victim before it has begun to do any damage; but few persons are
aware of the vast numbers in which these tiny parasites occasionally
appear. Owing to the abundance of one of them (_Trichogramma pretiosa_
Riley), we have known the last brood of the cotton-worm to be
annihilated, and Mr. H.G. Hubbard reported the same experience at
Centerville, Fla. Miss Mary E. Murtfeldt has recently communicated to us
a similar experience with a species of the Proctotrupid genus Telenomus,
infesting the eggs of the notorious squash-bug (_Coreus tristis_). She
writes: "The eggs of the Coreus have been very abundant on our squash
and melon vines, but fully ninety per cent. of them thus far [August 2]
have been parasitized--the only thing that has saved the plants from
utter destruction."
* * * * *
ON THE BIOLOGY OF GONATOPUS PILOSUS Thoms--Professor Josef Mik, in the
September number of the _Wiener Entomologische Zeitung_ (pp. 215-221,
pl. iii), gives a most interesting account of the life history of the
curious Proctotrupid, _Gonatopus pilosus_ Thoms., which has not before
been thoroughly understood. Ferris, in his "Nouvelles excursions dans
les grandes Landes," tells how, from cocoons of parasitic larvae on
_Athysanus maritima_ (a Cicadellid) he bred _Gonatopus pedestris_, but
this he considered a secondary parasite, from the fact that it issued
from an inner cocoon. It appears from the observations of Mik, however,
that it was in all probability a primary parasite, as with the species
studied by the latter (_G. pilosus_) the larva spins both an outer
and an inner cocoon. The larva of _Gonatopus pilosus_ is an external
parasite upon the Cicadellid _Deltocephalus xanthoneurus_ Fieb. The eggs
are laid in June or July, and the larvae, attaching themselves at the
junction of two abdominal segments, feed upon the juices of their host.
But one parasite is found upon a single Cicadellid, and it occasionally
shifts its position from one part of the abdomen to another. Leaving its
host in September, it spins a delicate double cocoon in which it remains
all winter in the larva state, transforming to pupa in May, and issuing
as an imago in June.
It will be remembered that the female in the genus Gonatopus is
furnished with a very remarkable modification of the claws of the front
tarsi, which are very strongly developed, and differ somewhat in shape
in the different species. It has usually been supposed that these claws
were for the purpose of grasping prey, but Professor Mik offers the more
satisfactory explanation that they are for the purpose of grasping the
Cicadellids, and holding them during the act of oviposition.
It is interesting to note that there is in the collection of the
Department of Agriculture a specimen of _Amphiscepa bivittata_ Say,
which bears, in the position described above, a parasitic larva similar
to that described by Mik. It left its victim and spun a white cocoon,
but we failed to rear the imago. It is probably the larva of a
Gonatopus, and possibly that of the only described American species of
the genus, _Gonatopus contortulus_ Patton (_Can. Ent._, xi p. 64).
* * * * *
SPECIES OF OTIORHYNCHIDAE INJURIOUS TO CULTIVATED PLANTS--Of our
numerous species of this family, we know the development and earlier
stages of only one species, viz, Fuller's rosebeetle (_Aramigus
Fulleri_[1]). A few other species have attracted attention by the injury
caused by them as perfect insects. They are as follows: _Epicoerus
imbricatus_, a very general feeder; _Pachnoeus opalus_ and _Artipus
floridanus_, both injurious to the orange tree. Of a few other species
we know the food-plants: thus _Neoptochus adspersus_ feeds on oak;
_Pachnoeus distans_ on oak and pine; _Brachystylus acutus_ is only
found on persimmon; _Aphrastus toeniatus_ lives on pawpaw (but not
exclusively); _Eudiagogus pulcher_ and _rosenschoeldi_ defoliate the
coffee-weeds (_Cassia occidentalis_ and other species of the same
genus). Two very common species, _Pandeleteius hilaris_ and _Tanymecus
confertus_, appear to be polyphagous, without preference for any
particular plant. Very recently the habits of another species, _Anametis
grisea_ Horn, were brought to our knowledge by Mr. George P. Peffer, of
Pewaukee, Wis., who sent us specimens of the beetle accompanied by the
following communication: "The larger curculio I send you is working
around the roots of apple and pear trees, near the surface of the ground
or around the union where grafts are set. I found fifteen of the larvae
on a small tree one and a half inches in diameter. The beetle seems to
lay its eggs just where the bark commences to be soft, near or partly
under the ground. The larvae eat the bark only, but they are so numerous
as to girdle the tree entirely in a short time."--_C. V. Riley_.
[Footnote 1: Vide Annual Report Department of Agriculture, 1878, p.
257.]
BOMBYLIID LARVAE DESTROYING LOCUST EGGS IN ASIA MINOR.--The eggs of
locusts in Cyprus and the Dardanelles, as we learn from the Proceedings
of the London Entomological Society, are much infested with the
parasitic larvae of _Bombyltidae_, though these were previously not
known to occur on the island. This fact shows that the habit which we
discovered among some of our N. A. _Bombyliids_ recurs in other parts
of the world, and we have little doubt that careful search among locust
eggs will also reveal the larval habits of some of the _Meloidae_ in
Europe and elsewhere. Indeed, notwithstanding the closest experiments
of Jules Lichtenstein, which show that the larva of the Spanish
blister-beetle of commerce will feed on honey, we imagine that its more
natural food will be found in future to be locust eggs. The particular
_Bombyliid_ observed by Mr. Frank Calvert destroying locusts in the
Dardanelles is _Callostoma fascipennis_ Macq., and its larva and pupa
very closely resemble those of _Triodites mus_. which we have studied
and figured (see Vol. XV., pl. vi.). We quote some of Mr. Calvert's
observations:
"On the 24th of April I examined the larvae in the ground; the only
change was a semi-transparent appearance which allowed of a movable
black spot to be seen in the body. On the 8th June about fifty per cent.
of the larvae had cast a skin and assumed the pupal state in their
little cells: the color yellowish-brown, darkening to gray in the more
advanced insect. About one per cent. of the cells, in which were two
skins and an aperture to the surface, showed the perfect insect to have
already come out of them. A gray pupa I was holding in my hand suddenly
burst its envelope, and in halt a minute on its legs stood a fly, thus
identifying the perfect insect.... I found the fly, now identified,
sucking the nectar of flowers, especially of the pink scabious and
thistle, plants common in the Troad. (Later on I counted as many as
sixteen flies on a thistle-head.) The number of flies rapidly increased
daily until the 13th, when the ground appeared pitted all over with
small holes from whence the parasite had issued. A few pupae were then
still to be found--a larva the rare exception. The pupal state thus
seems to be of short duration. It was very interesting to watch the
flies appearing above ground; first the head was pushed out; then, with
repeated efforts, the body followed; the whole operation was over in
two or three minutes; the wings were expanded, but the colors did not
brighten until some time after. Occasionally a pupa could not cast
off its envelope, and came wriggling out of the ground, when it was
immediately captured by ants. Unfortunate flies that could not detach
the covering membrane adhering to the abdomen, also fell a prey, as
indeed many of the flies that could not get on their legs in time. The
flies for the first time 13th June, were seen to pair, but this rarely."
* * * * *
SPARROWS IN THE UNITED STATES.--EFFECT OF ACCLIMATION, ETC.
The house sparrows were first brought to New York city in 1862. They
might have been introduced in consideration of the scientific usefulness
of the experiment; but the importation was made solely in view of the
benefit to result from their immense consumption of larvae.
I have long observed peculiarities in their acclimation which are hardly
known at all, and which must have a scientific importance. The subject
might also be worthy of general interest, so numerous and familiar have
the sparrows become all over our country.
Walking on Fifth avenue, or in the parks of the city, during the
breeding season, one's attention is repeatedly attracted by the pitiful
shrill call of a sparrow fallen on the pavement upon its first attempt
at flight, or by the stronger note of a mother sparrow, sharply
bewailing the fate of a little one, killed by the fall, or dispatched
alive by the cat.
Should we take and examine these little weaklings, we should find
generally that they are at a period when they normally should have the
strength for flight, and we should also find that they are almost always
of a lightish tint, some with head white, others with streaks and spots
of white on the tail or back, and occasionally one is found entirely
white, with red eyes--a complete albino. It is an accepted fact that the
city-sparrow is everywhere of a lighter color than that of the country.
But here the greater lightness exists in so many cases, to such
a degree, and particularly in female sparrows, that it should be
discussed, at least in part, under the head of albinism.
That so many which lack the muscular strength in their wings should be
so generally affected with albinism, is a significant fact to those
interested in this phenomenon.
Many hold, with Darwin, that this extraordinary want of coloring matter,
occasionally met with in all animals, is not to be regarded as an index
denoting an unhealthful condition of the animal. That it is so often
united in the young sparrow with physical inability, argues favorably
for those who bold a different view.
In my observations, what has struck me as a most curious fact, and what
I have found to be generally ignored, is that this wide-spread albinism
and general weakness of our acclimated house-sparrow are not found among
its progenitors.
Throughout several sojourns that I made in Europe. I searched for a
token of the remarkable characteristics existing here, but I never
succeeded in finding one in England, France, or in Germany, nor have I
met an observer that has.
This albinism and weakness, existing simultaneously to such an extent in
our young house-sparrows, are evidently the result of their acclimation.
The hypothesis that our now _numerous_ sparrows, being descended from
a _few_ European birds, and that, probably, continual and close
reproduction among individuals of the same stock, as in the case of our
original _few_ sparrows, has encouraged weakness in the race, can hardly
serve as an explanation of this phenomenon, because the sparrow is so
prolific that, after a few years, so many families had been formed that
the relation between them became very distant.
The reason for the greater proportion of albinism found in the young is
obvious; the young sparrows affected with albinism, lacking usually the
physical strength to battle their way in life, meet death prematurely,
and thus a very small proportion of the number is permitted to reach
maturity, while those that do owe it to some favoring circumstance. Many
are picked up and cared for by the public; and among those to whom these
sparrows generally owe such prolongation of life are the policemen in
our public parks, who often bring these little waifs to their homes,
keeping some, and sending others out into the world, after caring for
them until they have acquired the sufficient strength. However, almost
all of these albino-sparrows are picked up by the cat, and immediately
disposed of to the feline's physical benefit. They form such a prominent
diet among the cats near Washington Park, where I live, that, upon the
removal of some of our neighbors to the upper part of the city, it was
noticed that their cat became dissatisfied and lean, as sparrow-meat is
not to be found so extensively there, but it finally became resigned,
finding it possible to procure about three sparrows daily.
And here attention should be called to the method employed by our cats
to catch not only the weak, but fine, healthy sparrows as well; it ought
perhaps to be looked upon as a mark of intellectual improvement, for
originally their attempts consisted chiefly in a very unsuccessful
giving chase to the flying bird, whereas the cats of to-day are skilled
in a hundred adroit devices. It has often been a source of enjoyment to
watch their well-laid schemes and delicate maneuverings.
What wonder then, with such dainty fare at his disposal, that the cat is
often found to have become indifferent to rats, and even to mice?
There are several notable changes, no more desirable than the foregoing,
which have been caused by the introduction of the house-sparrow. The
only positive benefit which occurs to me is that the measuring worm,
which formerly infested all our vegetation, is now very nearly extinct
through the instrumentality of the sparrows. A pair of these, during the
breeding-season, destroys four thousand larvae weekly.
In some places, complaints are made that their untidy nests mar the
appearance of trees and walls.
The amount of havoc in our wheatfields created yearly by them is
enormous. Their forwardness and activity have driven all other birds
from where they have settled, so that the hairy caterpillars, which
sparrows do not eat and which used to be extensively consumed by other
birds, are now greatly on the increase, probably the only creatures, at
present, enjoying the domestication of the sparrow in this country....
I have also to remark that the sparrows here betray much less pugnacity
than in Europe.--E.M., M.D.
* * * * *
It is stated in the _Chemical Review_ that recent analyses of the water
from the _Holy Well_ at Mecca, which is so eagerly drunk by pilgrims,
show this water to be sewage, about ten times stronger than average
London sewage.
* * * * *
HOW TO ESTABLISH A TRUE MERIDIAN.
In looking over the excellent article of Professor S. M. Haupt, in the
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 360, on the subject of finding the
meridian, I discovered that one important step is not given, which,
might prove an embarrassment to a new beginner.
In the fourth paragraph, in the third column of page 5,748, he says:
"Having now found the altitude, correct it for refraction, ... and the
result will be the latitude."
It will be observed that this result is only the true altitude of the
star. The _latitude_ is found by further increasing or diminishing this
altitude by the polar distance of the star.
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