Scientific American Supplement No. 275

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I remained with Mr. Christian until the latter part of 1871, in all about
eight months. During this time the flour from the Washburn Mill attained a
celebrity that made it known and sought after all over the United States.
It commanded attention as an event of the very greatest importance, from
the fact that it was justly felt that if a mill grinding spring wheat
exclusively was capable of producing a flour infinitely superior in every
way to the best that could be made from the finest varieties of winter
wheats, the new North Western territory, with its peculiar adaptation to
the growing of spring grain, and its boundless capacity for production,
must at once become one of the most important sections of the country.

Mr. Christian's appreciation of the improvements I had made in his mill
was attested by doubly-locked and guarded entrances, and by the stringent
regulations which were adopted to prevent any of his employes carrying
information with regard to the process to his competitors.

All this time other Minneapolis mills were doing such work and only such as
they had done previously. Ought not the writer of an article on the origin
of new process milling--which article is intended to become historical, and
to have its authenticity indorsed by the government--to have known whether
Mr. Christian, in the Washburn Mill, did or did not make a grade of
flour which has hardly been excelled since for months before any other
Minneapolis mill approached his product in any degree? And should he not
be well enough acquainted with the milling of that period--1871-2--to know
that such results as were obtained in the Washburn Mill could only be
secured by the use of _smooth_ and _true_ stones? Mr. Stephens--whom I
shall mention again presently--did _not_ work in the Washburn Mill while I
was in charge of it.

In the fall of 1871 I entered into a contract with Mr. C. A. Pillsbury,
owner of the Taylor Mill and senior partner in the firm by whom the
Minneapolis Mill was operated, to put both those mills into condition to
make the same grade of flour as Mr. Christian was making. The consideration
in the contract was 5,000 dols. At the above mills I met to some extent the
same obstruction in regard to millers striking as had greeted me at Mr.
Christian's mill earlier in the year; but among those who did not strike at
the Minneapolis Mill I saw, for the first time, Mr. Stephens--then still
in his apprenticeship--whom Mr. Hoppin declares to have been, "so far as I
know," the first miller to use smooth stones. If Mr. Hoppin is right in his
assertion, perhaps he will explain why, during the eight months I was at
the Washburn Mill, Mr. Stephens did not make a corresponding improvement
in the product of the Minneapolis Mill. That he did not do this is amply
proved by the fact of Mr. Pillsbury giving me 5,000 dols. to introduce
improvements into his mills, when, supposing Mr. Hoppin's statement to
be correct, he might have had the same alterations carried out under Mr.
Stephens' direction at a mere nominal cost. As a matter of fact, the stones
in both the Taylor and Minneapolis Mills were as rough as any in the
Washburn Mill when I took charge of them.

Thus it appears (1) that the flour made by the mill in which Stephens was
employed was not improved in quality, while that of the Washburn Mill,
where he was not employed, became the finest that had ever been made in the
United States at that time. That (2) the owner of the mill in which Mr.
Stephens was employed, as he was not making good flour, engaged me at a
large cost to introduce into his mills the alterations by which only, both
Mr. Hoppin and myself agree, could any material improvement in the milling
of that period be effected, .viz., smooth, true, and well-balanced
stones.--GEO. T. SMITH.

* * * * *

For breachy animals do not use barbed fences. To see the lacerations that
these fences have produced upon the innocent animals should be sufficient
testimony against them. Many use pokes and blinders on cattle and goats,
but as a rule such things fail. The better way is to separate breachy
animals from the lot, as others will imitate their habits sooner or later,
and then, if not curable, _sell them_.

* * * * *

THE GUENON MILK-MIRROR.

The name of the simple Bordeaux peasant is, and should be, permanently
associated with his discovery that the milking qualities of cows were, to a
considerable extent, indicated by certain external marks easily observed.
We had long known that capacious udders and large milk veins, combined with
good digestive capacity and a general preponderance of the alimentary over
the locomotive system, were indications that rarely misled in regard to the
ability of a cow to give much milk; but to judge of the amount of milk a
cow would yield, and the length of time she would hold out in her flow, two
or three years before she could be called a cow--this was Guenon's great
accomplishment, and the one for which he was awarded a gold medal by the
Agricultural Society of his native district. This was the first of many
honors with which he was rewarded, and it is much to say that no committee
of agriculturists who have ever investigated the merits of the system
have ever spoken disparagingly of it. Those who most closely study it,
especially following Guenon's original system, which has never been
essentially improved upon, are most positive in regard to its truth,
enthusiastic in regard to its value.

The fine, soft hair upon the hinder part of a cow's udder for the most part
turns upward. This upward-growing hair extends in most cases all over that
part of the udder visible between the hind legs, but is occasionally marked
by spots or mere lines, usually slender ovals, in which the hair grows
down. This tendency of the hair to grow upward is not confined to the udder
proper; but extends out upon the thighs and upward to the tail. The edges
of this space over which the hair turns up are usually distinctly marked,
and, as a rule, the larger the area of this space, which is called the
"mirror" or "escutcheon," the more milk the cow will give, and the longer
she will continue in milk.

[Illustration: ESCUTCHEON OF THE JERSEY BULL-CALF, GRAND MIRROR, 4,904.]

That portion of the escutcheon which covers the udder and extends out on
the inside of each thigh, has been designated as the udder or mammary
mirror; that which runs upward towards the setting on of the tail, the
rising or placental mirror. The mammary mirror is of the greater value,
yet the rising mirror is not to be disregarded. It is regarded of especial
moment that the mirror, taken as a whole, be symmetrical, and especially
that the mammary mirror be so; yet it often occurs that it is far
otherwise, its outline being often very fantastical--exhibiting deep
_bays_, so to speak, and islands of downward growing hair. There are also
certain "ovals," never very large, yet distinct, which do not detract from
the estimated value of an escutcheon; notably those occurring on the lobes
of the udder just above the hind teats. These are supposed to be points of
value, though for what reason it would be hard to tell, yet they do occur
upon some of the very best milch cows, and those whose mirrors correspond
most closely to their performances.

Mr. Guenon's discovery enables breeders to determine which of their calves
are most promising, and in purchasing young stock it affords indications
which rarely fail as to their comparative milk yield. These indications
occasionally prove utterly fallacious, and Mr. Guenon gives rules for
determining this class, which he calls "bastards," without waiting for them
to fail in their milk. The signs are, however, rarely so distinct that one
would be willing to sell a twenty-quart cow, whose yield confirmed the
prediction of her mirror at first calving, because of the possibility of
the going dry in two months, or so, as indicated by her bastardy marks.

It is an interesting fact that the mirrors of bulls (which are much like
those of cows, but less extensive in every direction) are reflected in
their daughters. This gives rise to the dangerous custom of breeding for
mirrors, rather than for milk. What the results may be after a few years it
is easy to see. The mirror, being valued for its own sake--that is, because
it sells the heifers--will be likely to lose its practical significance and
value as a _milk_ mirror.

We have a striking photograph of a young Jersey bull, the property of Mr.
John L. Hopkins, of Atlanta, Ga., and called "Grand Mirror." This we have
caused to be engraved and the mirror is clearly shown. A larger mirror is
rarely seen upon a bull. We hope in a future number to exhibit some cows'
mirrors of different forms and degrees of excellence.--_Rural New Yorker_.

* * * * *

TWO GOOD LAWN TREES.

The negundo, or ash-leaved maple, as it is called in the Eastern States,
better known at the West as a box elder, is a tree that is not known as
extensively as it deserves. It is a hard maple, that grows as rapidly as
the soft maple; is hardy, possesses a beautiful foliage of black green
leaves, and is symmetrical in shape. Through eastern Iowa I found it
growing wild, and a favorite tree with the early settlers, who wanted
something that gave shade and protection to their homes quickly on their
prairie farms. Brought east, its growth is rapid, and it loses none of the
characteristics it possessed in its western home. Those who have planted it
are well pleased with it. It is a tree that transplants easily, and I know
of no reason why it should not be more popular.

For ornamental lawn planting, I give pre-eminence to the cut-leaf weeping
birch. Possessing all the good qualities of the white birch, it combines
with them a beauty and delicate grace yielded by no other tree. It is an
upright grower, with slender, drooping branches, adorned with leaves of
deep rich green, each leaf being delicately cut, as with a knife, into
semi-skeletons. It holds its foliage and color till quite late in the fall.
The bark, with age, becomes white, resembling the white birch, and the
beauty of the tree increases with its age. It is a free grower, and
requires no trimming. Nature has given it a symmetry which art cannot
improve.

H.T.J.

* * * * *

CUTTING SODS FOR LAWNS.

I am a very good sod layer, and used to lay very large lawns--half to
three-quarters of an acre. I cut the sods as follows: Take a board eight to
nine inches wide, four, five, or six feet long, and cut downward all around
the board, then turn the board over and cut again alongside the edge of the
board, and so on as many sods as needed. Then cut the turf with a sharp
spade, all the same lengths. Begin on one end, and roll together. Eight
inches by five feet is about as much as a man can handle conveniently. It
is very easy to load them on a wagon, cart, or barrow, and they can be
quickly laid. After laying a good piece, sprinkle a little with a watering
pot, if the sods are dry; then use the back of the spade to smooth them a
little. If a very fine effect is wanted, throw a shovelful or two of good
earth over each square yard, and smooth it with the back of a steel rake.

F.H.

* * * * *

[COUNTRY GENTLEMAN.]

HORTICULTURAL NOTES.

The Western New York Society met at Rochester, January 26.

_New Apples, Pears, Grapes, etc._--Wm. C Barry, secretary of the committee
on native fruits, read a full report. Among the older varieties of the
apple, he strongly recommended Button Beauty, which had proved so excellent
in Massachusetts, and which had been equally successful at the Mount
Hope Nurseries at Rochester; the fine growth of the tree and its great
productiveness being strongly in its favor. The Wagener and Northern Spy
are among the finer sorts. The Melon is one of the best among the older
sorts; the fruit being quite tender will not bear long shipment, but it
possesses great value for home use, and being a poor grower, it had been
thrown aside by nurserymen and orchardists. It should be top-grafted on
more vigorous sorts. The Jonathan is another fine sort of slender growth,
which should be top-grafted.

Among new pears, Hoosic and Frederic Clapp were highly commended for their
excellence. Some of the older peaches of fine quality had of late been
neglected, and among them Druid Hill and Brevoort.

Among the many new peaches highly recommended for their early ripening,
there was great resemblance to each other, and some had proved earlier than
Alexander.

Of the new grapes, Lady Washington was the most promising. The Secretary
was a failure. The Jefferson was a fine sort, of high promise.

Among the new white grapes, Niagara, Prentiss, and Duchess stood
pre-eminent, and were worthy of the attention of cultivators. The
Vergennes, from Vermont, a light amber colored sort, was also highly
commended. The Elvira, so highly valued in Missouri, does not succeed well
here. Several facts were stated in relation to the Delaware grape, showing
its reliability and excellence.

Several new varieties of the raspberry were named, but few of them were
found equal to the best old sorts. If Brinckle's Orange were taken as a
standard for quality, it would show that none had proved its equal in fine
quality. The Caroline was like it in color, but inferior in flavor. The New
Rochelle was of second quality. Turner was a good berry, but too soft for
distant carriage.

Of the many new strawberries named, each seemed to have some special
drawback. The Bidwell, however, was a new sort of particular excellence,
and Charles Downing thinks it the most promising of the new berries.

_Discussion on Grapes._--C. W. Beadle, of Ontario, in allusion to Moore's
Early grape, finds it much earlier than the Concord, and equal to it in
quality, ripening even before the Hartford. S. D. Willard, of Geneva,
thought it inferior to the Concord, and not nearly so good as the Worden.
The last named was both earlier and better than the Concord, and sold for
seven cents per pound when the Concord brought only four cents. C. A.
Green, of Monroe County, said the Lady Washington proved to be a very fine
grape, slightly later than Concord. P. L. Perry, of Canandaigua, said
that the Vergennes ripens with Hartford, and possesses remarkable keeping
qualities, and is of excellent quality and free from pulp. He presented
specimens which had been kept in good condition. He added, in relation to
the Worden grape, that some years ago it brought 18 cents per pound in New
York when the Concord sold three days later for only 8 cents. [In such
comparisons, however, it should be borne in mind that new varieties usually
receive more attention and better culture, giving them an additional
advantage.]

The Niagara grape received special attention from members. A. C. Younglove,
of Yates County, thought it superior to any other white grape for its many
good qualities. It was a vigorous and healthy grower, and the clusters were
full and handsome. W. J. Fowler, of Monroe County, saw the vine in October,
with the leaves still hanging well, a great bearer and the grape of fine
quality. C. L. Hoag, of Lockport, said he began to pick the Niagara on the
26th of August, but its quality improved by hanging on the vine. J. Harris,
of Niagara County, was well acquainted with the Niagara, and indorsed all
the commendation which had been uttered in its favor. T. C. Maxwell said
there was one fault--we could not get it, as it was not in market. W. C.
Barry, of Rochester, spoke highly of the Niagara, and its slight foxiness
would be no objection to those who like that peculiarity. C. L. Hoag
thought this was the same quality that Col. Wilder described as "a little
aromatic." A. C. Younglove found the Niagara to ripen with the Delaware.
Inquiry being made relative to the Pockington grape, H. E. Hooker said it
ripened as early as the Concord. C. A. Green was surprised that it had not
attracted more attention, as he regarded it as a very promising grape. J.
Charlton, of Rochester, said that the fruit had been cut for market on the
29th of August, and on the 6th of September it was fully ripe; but he has
known it to hang as late as November. J. S. Stone had found that when it
hung as late as November it became sweet and very rich in flavor.

_New Peaches._--A. C. Younglove had found such very early sorts as
Alexander and Amsden excellent for home use, but not profitable for market.
The insects and birds made heavy depredations on them. While nearly all
very early and high-colored sorts suffer largely from the birds, the
Rivers, a white peach, does not attract them, and hence it may be
profitable for market if skillfully packed; rough and careless handling
will spoil the fruit. He added that the Wheatland peach sustains its high
reputation, and he thought it the best of all sorts for market, ripening
with Late Crawford. It is a great bearer, but carries a crop of remarkably
uniform size, so that it is not often necessary to throw out a bad
specimen. This is the result of experience with it by Mr. Rogers at
Wheatland, in Monroe County, and at his own residence in Vine Valley. S. D.
Willard confirmed all that Mr. Younglove had said of the excellence of the
Rivers peach. He had ripened the Amsden for several years, and found it
about two weeks earlier than the Rivers, and he thought if the Amsden were
properly thinned, it would prevent the common trouble of its rotting; such
had been his experience. E. A. Bronson, of Geneva, objected to making very
early peaches prominent for marketing, as purchasers would prefer waiting
a few days to paying high prices for the earliest, and he would caution
people against planting the Amsden too largely, and its free recommendation
might mislead. May's Choice was named by H. E. Hooker as a beautiful yellow
peach, having no superior in quality, but perhaps it may not be found
to have more general value than Early and Late Crawford. It is scarcely
distinguishable in appearance from fine specimens of Early Crawford. W. C.
Barry was called on for the most recent experience with the Waterloo,
but said he was not at home when it ripened, but he learned that it had
sustained its reputation. A. C. Younglove said that the Salway is the best
late peach, ripening eight or ten days after the Smock. S. D. Willard
mentioned an orchard near Geneva, consisting of 25 Salway trees, which for
four years had ripened their crop and had sold for $4 per bushel in the
Philadelphia market, or for $3 at Geneva--a higher price than for any other
sort--and the owner intends to plant 200 more trees. W. C. Barry said the
Salway will not ripen at Rochester. Hill's Chili was named by some members
as a good peach for canning and drying, some stating that it ripens before
and others after Late Crawford. It requires thinning on the tree, or
the fruit will be poor. The Allen was pronounced by Mr. Younglove as an
excellent, intensely high-colored late peach.

_Insects Affecting Horticulture_.--Mr. Zimmerman spoke of the importance
of all cultivators knowing so much of insects and their habits as to
distinguish their friends from their enemies. When unchecked they increase
in an immense ratio, and he mentioned as an instance that the green fly
(_Aphis_) in five generations may become the parent of six thousand million
descendants. It is necessary, then, to know what other insects are employed
in holding them in check, by feeding on them. Some of our most formidable
insects have been accidentally imported from Europe, such as the codling
moth, asparagus beetle, cabbage butterfly, currant worm and borer, elm-tree
beetle, hessian fly, etc.; but in nearly every instance these have come
over without bringing their insect enemies with them, and in consequence
they have spread more extensively here than in Europe. It was therefore
urged that the Agricultural Department at Washington be requested to
import, as far as practicable, such parasites as are positively known to
prey on noxious insects. The cabbage fly eluded our keen custom-house
officials in 1866, and has enjoyed free citizenship ever since. By
accident, one of its insect enemies (a small black fly) was brought over
with it, and is now doing excellent work by keeping the cabbage fly in
check.

The codling moth, one of the most formidable fruit destroyers, may be
reduced in number by the well-known paper bands; but a more efficient
remedy is to shower them early in the season with Paris green, mixed in
water at the rate of only one pound to one hundred gallons of water, with
a forcing pump, soon after blossoming. After all the experiments made and
repellents used for the plum curculio, the jarring method is found the most
efficient and reliable, if properly performed. Various remedies for insects
sometimes have the credit of doing the work, if used in those seasons
when the insects happen to be few. With some insects, the use of oil is
advantageous, as it always closes up their breathing holes and suffocates
them. The oil should be mixed with milk, and then diluted as required, as
the oil alone cannot be mixed with the water. As a general remedy,
Paris green is the strongest that can be applied. A teaspoonful to a
tablespoonful, in a barrel of water, is enough. Hot water is the best
remedy for house plants. Place one hand over the soil, invert the pot, and
plunge the foliage for a second only at a time in water heated to from 150 deg.
to 200 deg.F, according to the plants; or apply with a fine rose. The yeast
remedy has not proved successful in all cases.

Among beneficial insects, there are about one hundred species of lady bugs,
and, so far as known, all are beneficial. Cultivators should know them.
They destroy vast quantities of plant lice. The ground beetles are mostly
cannibals, and should not be destroyed. The large black beetle, with
coppery dots, makes short work with the Colorado potato beetles; and
a bright green beetle will climb trees to get a meal of canker worms.
Ichneumon flies are among our most useful insects. The much-abused dragon
flies are perfectly harmless to us, but destroy many mosquitoes and flies.

Among insects that attack large fruits is the codling moth, to be destroyed
by paper bands, or with Paris green showered in water. The round-headed
apple-tree borer is to be cut out, and the eggs excluded with a sheet of
tarred paper around the stem, and slightly sunk in the earth. For the
oyster-shell bark louse, apply linseed oil. Paris green, in water,
will kill the canker worm. Tobacco water does the work for plant lice.
Peach-tree borers are excluded with tarred or felt paper, and cut out with
a knife. Jar the grape flea beetle on an inverted umbrella early in the
morning. Among small-fruit insects, the strawberry worms are readily
destroyed with hellebore, an ounce to a gallon of warm water. The same
remedy destroys the imported currant worm.

_Insect Destroyers_.--Prof. W. Saunders, of the Province of Ontario,
followed Mr. Zimmerman with a paper on other departments of the same
general subject, which contained much information and many suggestions of
great value to cultivators. He had found Paris green an efficient remedy
for the bud-moth on pear and other trees. He also recommends Paris green
for the grapevine flea beetle. Hellebore is much better for the pear slug
than dusting with sand, as these slugs, as soon as their skin is spoiled
by being sanded, cast it off and go on with their work of destruction as
freely as ever, and this they repeat. He remarked that it is a common error
that all insects are pests to the cultivator. There are many parasites,
or useful ones, which prey on our insect enemies. Out of 7,000 described
insects in this country, only about 50 have proved destructive to our
crops. Parasites are much more numerous. Among lepidopterous insects
(butterflies, etc.), there are very few noxious species; many active
friends are found among the Hymenoptera (wasps, etc.), the ichneumon flies
pre-eminently so; and in the order Hemiptera (bugs proper) are several that
destroy our enemies. Hence the very common error that birds which destroy
insects are beneficial to us, as they are more likely to destroy our insect
friends than the fewer enemies. Those known as _flycatchers_ may do neither
harm nor good; so far as they eat the wheat-midge and Hessian fly they
confer a positive benefit; in other instances they destroy both friends and
enemies. Birds that are only partly insectivorous, and which eat grain and
fruit, may need further inquiry. Prof. S. had examined the stomachs of many
such birds, and particularly of the American robin, and the only curculio
he ever found in any of these was a single one in a whole cherry which the
bird had bolted entire. Robins had proved very destructive to his grapes,
but had not assisted at all in protecting his cabbages growing alongside
his fruit garden. These vegetables were nearly destroyed by the larvae of
the cabbage fly, which would have afforded the birds many fine, rich meals.
This comparatively feeble insect has been allowed by the throngs of birds
to spread over the whole continent. A naturalist in one of the Western
States had examined several species of the thrush, and found they had eaten
mostly that class of insects known as our friends.

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