Ruth Alberta Brown - "Tabitha's Vacation"

Louisa Clayton - "The One Great Reality"

Arthur Hornblow - "The Mask"

J. Fenimore Cooper - "Recollections of Europe"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Encyclopedia of Needlework

T >> Therese de Dillmont >> Encyclopedia of Needlework




[Illustration: TABLE OF THE APPROXIMATE RELATION OF THE D.M.C THREADS
AND COTTONS TO THE NUMBERS OF THE KNITTING NEEDLES[A].]

POSITION OF THE HANDS IN KNITTING (fig. 341.)--Lay the thread over the
fifth finger of the right hand, and twist it round it, then carry it
over the forefinger, which should be kept close to the work, the work
being held between the third finger and the thumb. The left hand remains
more or less inactive, having merely, by a slight movement of the
forefinger to pass the loops, in succession, on to the needle in the
right hand, which forms the stitches. This position of the hands, which
is the one usually adopted in England and France, is the one represented
in our illustration. The Germans on the contrary, lay the thread over
the left hand, and can move the hands much more quickly, in consequence.
There are some ways of casting on, which can only be done in the German
fashion.

To prevent the irregularity in stitches, the needles should never be
allowed to protrude more than 1 or 11/2 c/m, from the work. All
exaggerated movement of the arms, which renders knitting a very tiring
occupation, should be avoided.

[Illustration: FIG. 341. POSITION OF THE HANDS IN KNITTING.]

CASTING ON.--Casting, or, setting on, as it is sometimes called, is
the formation of the first row of stitches which are to constitute the
foundation of the work.

There are four methods of casting on: (1) crossed casting on, done in
four different ways; (2) knitting on; (3) slipping on, also done in two
ways; (4) casting on with picots.

(1) CROSSED CASTING ON WITH A SINGLE THREAD (fig. 342). Lay the thread
over your fingers as though you were beginning a chain of plain
stitches, fig. 403, leaving a long end, sufficient to make the number of
stitches required, lying within the palm of the hand. Put the needle in
from below, into the loop on the thumb, and pass it from right to left
under that part of the thread which lies between the forefinger and the
thumb. Then bring the thread through the loop on the thumb, draw the
thumb out, and lay the loop on the needle. In making the next stitches,
lay the thread over the thumb, so that the end lies outside. Put in the
needle under the front thread and complete the stitch as before. This
method of casting on is generally done over two needles, one of them
being drawn out before the knitting-off is begun, to ensure a loose
edge.

[Illustration: FIG. 342. CROSSED CASTING ON WITH A SINGLE THREAD.]

CROSSED CASTING ON WITH A THREEFOLD THREAD.--This method is similar to
the last, only that the thread is taken threefold and is drawn by the
needle through the loop, which is formed at the bend of the thread. Then
you pass the single thread over the left hand, and the triple one over
the thumb, as shown in fig. 342, and make the same stitches, as above.
The threefold thread makes a broad chain at the bottom of the loops.

DOUBLE CROSSED CASTING ON (fig. 343).--This can be done either with a
single or a threefold thread. In our drawing it is done with the latter.
The first stitch is made as we have already described, only that you
have to keep the loop on your thumb, put the needle into it a second
time, lay hold of the thread behind, cast on a second stitch, and then
only, withdraw your thumb. In this manner two loops are made at once,
close together.

[Illustration: FIG. 343. DOUBLE CROSSED CASTING ON.]

CROSSED CASTING ON, FORMING A CHAIN (fig. 344.)--Begin by making one
such stitch, as we have described in fig. 341; for the second and
following stitches, bring the end of the thread to the inside of the
palm of the hand, so that it lies between the thumb and the forefinger.

[Illustration: FIG. 344. CROSSED CASTING ON, FORMING A CHAIN.]

(2) KNITTING ON STITCHES (fig. 345).--Begin with a plain crossed
stitch; then take the thread and the needle in the left hand, a second
needle in the right, and catch it into the stitch on the left needle,
lay the thread under the right needle and draw it through in a loop,
through the loop on the left needle. Then transfer it as a fresh stitch
to the left needle; catch the needle into this second stitch, and draw
the thread through it, to form the third, and so on.

This method of casting on is used for articles, that are to have a
double edge, (see figs, 355, 356), because stitches, made in this way,
are easier to pick up than the tighter ones; but it should not be used,
where it will form the actual edge, as the loops are always too open.

[Illustration: FIG. 345. KNITTING ON STITCHES.]

(3) CASTING ON WITH SLIP LOOPS (fig. 346).--Begin by casting on one
loop in the ordinary way, next, lay the thread, as in German knitting,
over the left hand, twisting it once only round the forefinger, then put
the needle in, upwards from below, under the thread that lies on the
outside of the forefinger; draw out the finger from the loop, put the
loop on the needle to the right, take the thread on the forefinger
again, and so on.

[Illustration: FIG. 346. CASTING ON WITH SLIP LOOPS.]

CASTING ON WITH DOUBLE SLIP LOOPS (fig. 347).--Begin by casting on a
stitch in the ordinary way, then lay the thread over the forefinger, the
reverse way, so that it crosses between, not outside the hand and the
body of the knitter. Pass the needle upwards from below, under the
inside thread, and slip this thread as a loop on to the needle. Continue
to cast on, inserting the needle under the front and back threads
alternately. This method is specially suitable for open patterns, where
you have to increase several times, in succession.

[Illustration: FIG. 347. CASTING ON WITH DOUBLE SLIP LOOPS.]

(4) CASTING ON WITH PICOTS (fig. 348).--Cast on two stitches in the
ordinary way and turn the work. Lay the thread over the needle, put the
needle into the first stitch, from right to left, and slip it on to the
right needle, knit off the second stitch plain, and draw the slipped one
over it.

[Illustration: FIG. 348. CASTING ON WITH PICOTS.]

Cast on as many stitches as you want in this manner and then pick up the
picots thus formed, with an auxiliary needle, and knit them off like
ordinary stitches.

This method of casting on may be varied thus in the following manner:
having cast on the stitches as in fig. 348, throw the thread over the
needle and knit two stitches together.

PLAIN STITCH (fig. 349).--This is the easiest stitch and the first
which a knitter has to learn. It is executed as follows: Put the
right-hand needle in, upwards from below, under the front part of the
first stitch on the left-hand needle, lay the thread from right to left
under the needle, draw it through the loop, and drop the loop off the
left needle.

[Illustration: FIG. 349. PLAIN STITCH.]

Plain knitting is employed wherever a perfectly smooth, even surface is
required. It looks quite differently on the wrong side from what it does
on the right where it presents the appearance of vertical rows of
plaiting.

BACK, OR SEAM-STITCH (fig. 350).--You may intentionally knit the wrong
side of plain knitting. This is called purling and is done, in the
following way: lay the thread over the left needle, and put the right
one, downwards from above, behind the thread, into the loop on the left
needle, lay the thread upwards from below, over the right needle, draw
it through the loop, and drop the loop off the left needle. This stitch
is used in knitting patterns, and for marking horizontal lines in
smooth surfaces, such as the seam of a stocking, for instance.

[Illustration: FIG. 350. BACK OR SEAM-STITCH.]

PLAIN STITCH TAKEN FROM BEHIND (fig. 351).--Put the needle in from
right to left, under the back part of the stitch; leave the thread
behind the needle, then pass it from right to left over the needle and
draw it through the stitch.

[Illustration: FIG. 351. PLAIN STITCH TAKEN FROM BEHIND.]

BACK, OR SEAM-STITCH TAKEN FROM BEHIND (fig. 352).--Put the needle
into the second part of the stitch, upwards from below, and knit it as a
back or seam-stitch.

[Illustration: FIG. 352. BACK OR SEAM-STITCH TAKEN FROM BEHIND.]

In plain stitch, taken from behind, the two threads of the loop are
crossed, instead of lying side by side, as they do in plain knitting.

Back-stitch taken from behind, is only used for certain open-work
patterns.

OVERS (fig. 353).--These form holes in plain knitting, and are used
for open-work patterns and for increasing.

[Illustration: FIG. 353. OVERS.]

To make an over, lay the thread over the needle, and in the next row,
knit this loop like any other stitch.

Each over adds one to the existing number of stitches. In cases,
therefore, where the number is to remain the same, you have to make as
many intakes as overs. Overs can only be used in conjunction with other
stitches.

KNOT STITCH (fig. 354).--This forms a raised spot in plain knitting
and is executed as follows: knit 1, and leave it on the left-hand
needle; put the stitch you have made with the right needle back on the
left, and knit it off. Make 4 or 5 similar stitches, all issuing from
the same stitch on the left needle, so that you have 4 or 5 loops on the
right needle; then drop the stitch off the left needle, and pull the 4
first loops over the last one.

[Illustration: FIG. 354. KNOT STITCH.]

CABLE OR CHAIN STITCH.--Chain stitches are used for strengthening and
equalizing the edges of articles that are made in stripes. They can be
made in two ways; either, you knit off all the stitches on one needle,
turn the work, put the needle into the first stitch, as if you were
going to knit it from the back, and take it off the left needle without
knitting it, the thread to lie behind the needle; or, you knit off all
the stitches on one needle, turn the work, and knit off the first
stitch.

THE NAMES OF THE STITCHES.--Out of the stitches that have been already
described, other stitches are formed, which, as they are frequently
alluded to in knitting directions, we shall here enumerate, explaining
all the terms, usually employed in such directions.

OVER, OR INCREASE.--Explained in fig. 353. Throwing the thread once
over the right needle.

DOUBLE OVER, OR TWO INCREASES.--Throwing the thread twice over the
needle.

PLAIN INTAKE.--Knitting two stitches together plain. This is done when
the intake is to lie from left to right.

PURLED INTAKE.--Purling two stitches together. This is done to make
the stitches, that are knitted together, visible; or in the case of a
piece of work composed of stripes, on the wrong side, when the intake is
to lean to the right, on the right side.

PLAIN DECREASE, TAKEN FROM BEHIND.--Knitting off two stitches
together, plain from behind. This is done when the intake is to lie to
the left.

PURLED DECREASE, TAKEN FROM BEHIND.--Purling two stitches together,
from behind. This is done when, in articles composed of stripes, the
decrease has to be made on the wrong side, and is to lie to the left on
the right side.

PULLING OVER.--Slipping a stitch from the left needle to the right
without knitting it, knitting the next plain, and pulling the slipped
stitch over the knitted one. In this manner two or three stitches can be
pulled over the knitted one.

CASTING OFF.--To prevent the stitches from unravelling they are
finished off in the following manner. Knit off two plain, pull the first
over the second and drop it, so that only one remains on the needle.
Knit the next stitch, and pull the one behind over it, and so on. This
chain of stitches, must neither be too tight, nor too loose, but just as
elastic as the rest of the work.

MATERIALS FOR STOCKINGS.--Stockings can be made of silk, wool or
cotton, entirely according to fancy, but for coloured stockings, we
cannot too highly recommend the D.M.C knitting cottons, as more
durable, in all respects, than either silk or wool. They are
manufactured in 360 different shades, whereas, wool and silk are only to
be had in a very limited assortment of colours. For hand-knit stockings,
Nos. 25, 30, 35[A] are the best, for machine-knit, Nos. 40 and 50.

STOCKING KNITTING.--A stocking consists of five parts: (1) the top,
(2) the knee, (3) the leg, (4) the heel, (5) the foot.

(1). The top may be either ribbed, or knitted in an openwork stitch of
same kind or with a double-toothed edge, fig. 356.

(2) and (3). The knee, and the leg down to the heel, are generally plain
knitted; it is only children's stockings that are fancy knitted.

(4). The heel, is worked as straight knitting backwards and forwards; by
knitting first one row plain and then turning back and knitting it purl.
It is shaped to the foot by the intakes at the top.

(5). The foot is knitted plain, with intakes from the heel onwards, to
get rid of the superfluous stitches. Then knit a plain piece, without a
seam-stitch, till you begin to decrease for the toe, which can be worked
in several different ways.

To ensure the right proportions between the several parts of a stocking,
the following directions should be attended to. An ornamental top must
never be taken into account, in measuring the length of the leg. When
the top part is finished, you make the seam, at the beginning of the
first needle of the round, of one, or two purled stitches, or sometimes,
a narrow pattern of purled stitches. This marks the middle of the
stocking. For ordinary-sized stockings, knit plain from the top-band,
till the knitted piece, forms a square.

For stockings that are to cover the knee, knit half as much again, that
is one and a half times the width of the stocking. This brings you to
the calf of the leg. Pull the third stitch after the seam, over the
second, and knit together the two last but one before the seam. There
should be 12 rounds between each of the first 3 or 4 intakes, and after
that 8, until this part is one and a half times the width of the knee
in length, and a quarter narrower.

For the ankle, knit a plain piece, half the width of the knee in length,
without intakes.

For the heel, count the stitches on the four needles, exclusive of the
seam, and put two stitches more than the quarter of the whole number on
to the needles, to the right and left of the seam.

For a heel to fit well, it should be as long as it is wide. In order
that they should wear better, the heel and the toe are often knitted
with double thread. Coton a feutrer D.M.C[A] is made expressly for that
purpose, and should be wound round the thread of which the whole
stocking is made. For the instep, the part between the heel and toe, you
must go on decreasing from the heel, until you have 2 stitches less on
each needle, than you had at the ankle. Then knit the plain part of the
foot, which should be as wide as the ankle, after which proceed to
decrease for the toe, which should be a quarter the length of the whole
foot. In spite of this careful subdivision, it is always well to count
the stitches, to ensure perfect regularity. The number of stitches cast
on, at the outset, for the same-sized stockings, must depend upon the
size of the wool or cotton; we can only give the numbers approximately.
Our calculation is based on the use of 5 needles; the given number has
therefore to be cast on four times.

______________________________________________________________________________
Coton a tricoter D.M.C Number of stitches to Number of stitches to
be cast on one needle for be cast on one needle
Numbers to be used stocking ordinary-sized for stockings that are
to reach above the knee
______________________________________________________________________________
25 32 36
30 34 38
35 36 42
40 40 46
50 42 50
______________________________________________________________________________

SCALLOPED EDGE (figs. 355 and 356).--This is the simplest and
strongest edge you can have for a stocking, and is called the
cat's-teeth edge.

[Illustration: FIG. 355. SCALLOPED STOCKING EDGE. EDGE OPEN.]

[Illustration: FIG. 356. SCALLOPED STOCKING EDGE. EDGE FOLDED TOGETHER.]

Having cast on the stitches, knit 6 to 10 rounds plain, according to the
size of the cotton, then one round of alternate intakes and overs. Knit
as many plain rounds as before, and with a sixth needle take up as many
of the cast on stitches, as you have stitches on one of the upper
needles. Turn this needle inwards, and place it against the outside
needle and knit off both needles together. See that you knit the
corresponding stitches off together, otherwise the scallops that form
the edge will be crooked.

COMMON HEEL (fig. 357).--This is the simplest form of heel, and can be
knitted either with or without an outside seam. Divide the stitches into
four, and put two more on each of the heel needles than on the others,
then make, according to the size of the cotton, from 15 to 20 seams;
knit off all the stitches on the right needle and a third of those on
the left. Supposing that you have 24 stitches, knit off 8, then slip 1,
knit 1, and pull the slipped stitch over, knit 2 plain, turn the work,
slip the first, and purl the next 8 stitches of the second needle; purl
the 9th and 10th together, purl 2, turn the work to the right side, and
slip the first stitch on to the right needle. By means of these
successive intakes after the 8 stitches, the knitting forms a plait on
both sides of the heel.

[Illustration: FIG. 357. COMMON HEEL.]

In all heels that are made after this pattern, the intakes must begin on
the right side and the last one must be made on the wrong, so that once
the heel is finished and the work turned, you can go on knitting plain.

When you have finished the stitches of the two heel needles up to the
outside seams, take up the stitches on the sides of the heel with a
spare needle and knit them on to the left heel needle, then knit the
stitches reserved for the instep, take up the stitches on the right side
of the heel again and knit them on to the fourth needle.

In the next round, knit all the stitches of the first needle plain,
excepting the 4 last; knit the first and second of these together and
the two last plain. Knit the two first stitches of the fourth needle
plain, slip the third, knit the fourth and pull the slipped stitch over.

HEEL IN STEPS (fig. 358).--After dividing the stitches, make from 12
to 14 seams. Then knit as many stitches of the first needle as you have
seams at the side; turn the work, and begin the needle with the seam you
made first. Knit off as many stitches from the second needle as from the
first. Make the same number of seams, as for the first part of the
heel. When the seams are finished, take up the chain stitches, on both
sides, make a decrease by knitting the last stitch of the small part and
the first of the large, together; knit two; turn the work; slip the
first stitch, knit to the second side, and decrease as in the first
part.

[Illustration: FIG. 358. HEEL IN STEPS.]

When you have decreased all the stitches up to the last, take up the
slipped stitches of the first part, and begin the intakes for the instep
in the ordinary way.

There is not more work in this pattern of heel than in any other; it
fits closely and consequently wears well.

PLAIN HEEL (figs. 359 and 360).--Those who are not fond of purling
will appreciate this and the following pattern for a plain heel.

[Illustration: FIG. 359. PLAIN HEEL.]

[Illustration: FIG. 360. HEEL KNITTED ON THE RIGHT SIDE.]

Knit off the stitches of the first needle after the seam; then on to two
spare needles, cast on, 8 more stitches than you had on one needle after
dividing the stitches; put the stitches of the third and fourth needles
together and knit the first round plain.

2nd round--knit together the 1st and 2nd, and the 9th and 10th of the
first auxiliary needle; and the 10th and 9th and 2nd and 1st of the
second.

3rd round--plain.

4th round--knit together the 1st and 2nd and the 7th and 8th of the
first needle.

5th round--plain.

6th round--knit together the 1st and 2nd and the 5th and 6th of the
first auxiliary needle; and the 6th and 7th and the last but one and the
last, of the second.

7th, 10th, 11th, 13th, 14th, 16th, 17th, 19th, 20th rounds all plain.

8th round--knit together the 1st and 2nd, and the 3rd and 4th of the
first auxiliary needle, and the 4th and 3rd, and the last stitch but one
and the last, of the second.

9th round--After the two last intakes, purl together the 4th and 3rd
stitches before the end of the 1st and 3rd needle, and the 3rd and 4th
at the beginning of the 2nd and 4th needles.

12th, 15th, and 18th rounds--Decrease, the same as in the 9th round.

21st round--knit 2 plain, at the beginning of the 1st and 3rd needles;
knit the next 2 together; knit together the 4th and 3rd, before the end
of the 2nd and 4th needles; knit the last stitches plain; go on
decreasing in this way until the purled stitches meet. After the plain
round over the intakes, add four plain rounds, divide the stitches that
remain for the sole, on two needles and cast off on the wrong side.

Now take up the auxiliary stitches, and in the first 3 plain rounds,
knit together the last and the first of the 1st and 2nd needles, and the
last and the first of the 3rd and 4th.

With the rest of the extra stitches make purled intakes, knitting two
plain rounds after each round with an intake.

For the other kind of plain heel also (fig. 360), auxiliary stitches are
required. Supposing that you have 20 stitches on each needle, you must
cast on 28 stitches on to each auxiliary needle; knit together the 4th
and 3rd stitches at the end of the 1st and 3rd needles, and the 3rd and
4th of the 2nd and 3rd needles, so that you may have 4 plain stitches
between both intakes. Go on decreasing, knitting 2 plain rounds after
each round with an intake, until you have 6 stitches left on each
needle. Then knit together the first and last stitches of each needle,
one plain round over it, and finish with a chain on the wrong side of
the heel. Then take up the auxiliary stitches and knit the instep.

ITALIAN STOCKING (fig. 361).--The heel, sole and toe of a stocking
always wear out before the instep. The Italians and Greeks economise
time and material and facilitate the renewal of those parts that wear
out, by knitting the upper part of the foot in two pieces. After
knitting the heel in on or other of the above ways, work the foot as
straight knitting with the two upper needles only, until you have the
necessary length. Then knit the underneath part separately, in the same
way. You must keep a chain along all edges and a narrow seam of one or
two stitches. In the sole, which you make after finishing the upper
part, you intakes must come directly after and before the seam. When you
have got the same number of rounds in each piece, join them together and
begin the toe.

[Illustration: FIG. 361. ITALIAN STOCKING.]

Sew up the slits left open on either side, with a needle and thread
taking care to fit the corresponding stitches together.

In this manner, when one part wears out, you have only to unpick these
side-seams and re-sole or re-heel the stocking as the case may be.

TOE (fig. 362).--To begin as before, with the simplest and most
ordinary way of making this part of the stocking, divide the stitches
equally on to the 4 needles; knit together the 4th and 3rd stitches
before the end of the 1st and 3rd needles, knit the 2 last and 2 first
stitches of the 2nd and 4th needles plain, and make an intake by
slipping the 3rd stitch, knitting the 4th, and pulling the slipped
stitch over. Begin by knitting 2 plain rounds after each of the first 4
rounds with an intake, and afterwards only one. When you have only 4
stitches left on each needle, collect them on two, and knit them
together, two and two, on the wrong side of the stocking.

[Illustration: FIG. 362. TOE.]

TOE (fig. 363).--Here, before beginning to decrease, divide the
stitches by 8, 10, or 12. Supposing that they have been divided by 10,
knit 8 plain; knit the 9th and 10th together, 8 plain, knit two
together, and so on, the whole way round. Then knit as many plain rounds
as there are plain stitches between 2 intakes. In the next rounds with
intakes, you will have one stitch less between each intake, in the
second therefore, there should be 7 plain stitches between each intake,
and you knit 7 plain rounds; and so on to the 7th round, when 2 stitches
will remain, followed by 2 plain rounds; when there are only 4 stitches
left on the needles, turn them in to the wrong side of the stocking,
and finish off with a chain.

[Illustration: FIG. 363. TOE.]

TOE (fig. 364).--Begin the intakes with the two first stitches of each
needle, by the slip and pull over process, knit one plain round after
each round with an intake. In the following rounds, make the intake in
the 2nd round with the 3rd and 4th stitches, in the 3rd, with the 5th
and 6th stitches, in the 4th, with the 7th and 8th stitches, so that
when finished the intakes form a kind of spiral. Finish off in the
ordinary way.

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