The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus
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Tacitus >> The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus
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15. During the intervals of war, they pass their time less in hunting than
in a sluggish repose, [90] divided between sleep and the table. All the
bravest of the warriors, committing the care of the house, the family
affairs, and the lands, to the women, old men, and weaker part of the
domestics, stupefy themselves in inaction: so wonderful is the contrast
presented by nature, that the same persons love indolence, and hate
tranquillity! [91] It is customary for the several states to present, by
voluntary and individual contributions, [92] cattle or grain [93] to their
chiefs; which are accepted as honorary gifts, while they serve as
necessary supplies. [94] They are peculiarly pleased with presents from
neighboring nations, offered not only by individuals, but by the community
at large; such as fine horses, heavy armor, rich housings, and gold
chains. We have now taught them also to accept of money. [95]
16. It is well known that none of the German nations inhabit cities; [96]
or even admit of contiguous settlements. They dwell scattered and
separate, as a spring, a meadow, or a grove may chance to invite them.
Their villages are laid out, not like ours in rows of adjoining buildings;
but every one surrounds his house with a vacant space, [97] either by way
of security against fire, [97] or through ignorance of the art of
building. For, indeed, they are unacquainted with the use of mortar and
tiles; and for every purpose employ rude unshapen timber, fashioned with
no regard to pleasing the eye. They bestow more than ordinary pains in
coating certain parts of their buildings with a kind of earth, so pure and
shining that it gives the appearance of painting. They also dig
subterraneous caves, [99] and cover them over with a great quantity of
dung. These they use as winter-retreats, and granaries; for they preserve
a moderate temperature; and upon an invasion, when the open country is
plundered, these recesses remain unviolated, either because the enemy is
ignorant of them, or because he will not trouble himself with the search.
[100]
17. The clothing common to all is a sagum [101] fastened by a clasp, or,
in want of that, a thorn. With no other covering, they pass whole days on
the hearth, before the fire. The more wealthy are distinguished by a vest,
not flowing loose, like those of the Sarmatians and Parthians, but girt
close, and exhibiting the shape of every limb. They also wear the skins of
beasts, which the people near the borders are less curious in selecting or
preparing than the more remote inhabitants, who cannot by commerce procure
other clothing. These make choice of particular skins, which they
variegate with spots, and strips of the furs of marine animals, [102] the
produce of the exterior ocean, and seas to us unknown. [103] The dress of
the women does not differ from that of the men; except that they more
frequently wear linen, [104] which they stain with purple; [105] and do
not lengthen their upper garment into sleeves, but leave exposed the whole
arm, and part of the breast.
18. The matrimonial bond is, nevertheless, strict and severe among them;
nor is there anything in their manners more commendable than this. [106]
Almost singly among the barbarians, they content themselves with one wife;
a very few of them excepted, who, not through incontinence, but because
their alliance is solicited on account of their rank, [107] practise
polygamy. The wife does not bring a dowry to her husband, but receives one
from him. [108] The parents and relations assemble, and pass their
approbation on the presents--presents not adapted to please a female
taste, or decorate the bride; but oxen, a caparisoned steed, a shield,
spear, and sword. By virtue of these, the wife is espoused; and she in her
turn makes a present of some arms to her husband. This they consider as
the firmest bond of union; these, the sacred mysteries, the conjugal
deities. That the woman may not think herself excused from exertions of
fortitude, or exempt from the casualties of war, she is admonished by the
very ceremonial of her marriage, that she comes to her husband as a
partner in toils and dangers; to suffer and to dare equally with him, in
peace and in war: this is indicated by the yoked oxen, the harnessed
steed, the offered arms. Thus she is to live; thus to die. She receives
what she is to return inviolate [109] and honored to her children; what
her daughters-in-law are to receive, and again transmit to her
grandchildren.
19. They live, therefore, fenced around with chastity; [110] corrupted by
no seductive spectacles, [111] no convivial incitements. Men and women are
alike unacquainted with clandestine correspondence. Adultery is extremely
rare among so numerous a people. Its punishment is instant, and at the
pleasure of the husband. He cuts off the hair [112] of the offender,
strips her, and in presence of her relations expels her from his house,
and pursues her with stripes through the whole village. [113] Nor is any
indulgence shown to a prostitute. Neither beauty, youth, nor riches can
procure her a husband: for none there looks on vice with a smile, or calls
mutual seduction the way of the world. Still more exemplary is the
practice of those states [114] in which none but virgins marry, and the
expectations and wishes of a wife are at once brought to a period. Thus,
they take one husband as one body and one life; that no thought, no
desire, may extend beyond him; and he may be loved not only as their
husband, but as their marriage. [115] To limit the increase of children,
[116] or put to death any of the later progeny [117] is accounted
infamous: and good habits have there more influence than good laws
elsewhere. [118]
20. In every house the children grow up, thinly and meanly clad, [119] to
that bulk of body and limb which we behold with wonder. Every mother
suckles her own children, and does not deliver them into the hands of
servants and nurses. No indulgence distinguishes the young master from the
slave. They lie together amidst the same cattle, upon the same ground,
till age [120] separates, and valor marks out, the free-born. The youths
partake late of the pleasures of love, [121] and hence pass the age of
puberty unexhausted: nor are the virgins hurried into marriage; the same
maturity, the same full growth is required: the sexes unite equally
matched [122] and robust; and the children inherit the vigor of their
parents. Children are regarded with equal affection by their maternal
uncles [123] as by their fathers: some even consider this as the more
sacred bond of consanguinity, and prefer it in the requisition of
hostages, as if it held the mind by a firmer tie, and the family by a more
extensive obligation. A person's own children, however, are his heirs and
successors; and no wills are made. If there be no children, the next in
order of inheritance are brothers, paternal and maternal uncles. The more
numerous are a man's relations and kinsmen, the more comfortable is his
old age; nor is it here any advantage to be childless. [124]
21. It is an indispensable duty to adopt the enmities [125] of a father or
relation, as well as their friendships: these, however, are not
irreconcilable or perpetual. Even homicide is atoned [126] by a certain
fine in cattle and sheep; and the whole family accepts the satisfaction,
to the advantage of the public weal, since quarrels are most dangerous in
a free state. No people are more addicted to social entertainments, or
more liberal in the exercise of hospitality. [127] To refuse any person
whatever admittance under their roof, is accounted flagitious. [128] Every
one according to his ability feasts his guest: when his provisions are
exhausted, he who was late the host, is now the guide and companion to
another hospitable board. They enter the next house uninvited, and are
received with equal cordiality. No one makes a distinction with respect to
the rights of hospitality, between a stranger and an acquaintance. The
departing guest is presented with whatever he may ask for; and with the
same freedom a boon is desired in return. They are pleased with presents;
but think no obligation incurred either when they give or receive.
22. [129] [Their manner of living with their guest is easy and affable] As
soon as they arise from sleep, which they generally protract till late in
the day, they bathe, usually in warm water, [130] as cold weather chiefly
prevails there. After bathing they take their meal, each on a distinct
seat, and a a separate table. [131] Then they proceed, armed, to business,
and not less frequently to convivial parties, in which it is no disgrace
to pass days and nights, without intermission, in drinking. The frequent
quarrels that arise amongst them, when intoxicated, seldom terminate in
abusive language, but more frequently in blood. [132] In their feasts,
they generally deliberate on the reconcilement of enemies, on family
alliances, on the appointment of chiefs, and finally on peace and war;
conceiving that at no time the soul is more opened to sincerity, or warmed
to heroism. These people, naturally void of artifice or disguise, disclose
the most secret emotions of their hearts in the freedom of festivity. The
minds of all being thus displayed without reserve, the subjects of their
deliberation are again canvassed the next day; [133] and each time has its
advantages. They consult when unable to dissemble; they determine when not
liable to mistake.
23. Their drink is a liquor prepared from barley or wheat [134] brought by
fermentation to a certain resemblance of wine. Those who border on the
Rhine also purchase wine. Their food is simple; wild fruits, fresh
venison, [135] or coagulated milk. [136] They satisfy hunger without
seeking the elegances and delicacies of the table. Their thirst for liquor
is not quenched with equal moderation. If their propensity to drunkenness
be gratified to the extent of their wishes, intemperance proves as
effectual in subduing them as the force of arms. [137]
24. They have only one kind of public spectacle, which is exhibited in
every company. Young men, who make it their diversion, dance naked amidst
drawn swords and presented spears. Practice has conferred skill at this
exercise; and skill has given grace; but they do not exhibit for hire or
gain: the only reward of this pastime, though a hazardous one, is the
pleasure of the spectators. What is extraordinary, they play at dice, when
sober, as a serious business: and that with such a desperate venture of
gain or loss, that, when everything else is gone, they set their liberties
and persons on the last throw. The loser goes into voluntary servitude;
and, though the youngest and strongest, patiently suffers himself to be
bound and sold. [138] Such is their obstinacy in a bad practice--they
themselves call it honor. The slaves thus acquired are exchanged away in
commerce, that the winner may get rid of the scandal of his victory.
25. The rest of their slaves have not, like ours, particular employments
in the family allotted them. Each is the master of a habitation and
household of his own. The lord requires from him a certain quantity of
grain, cattle, or cloth, as from a tenant; and so far only the subjection
of the slave extends. [139] His domestic offices are performed by his own
wife and children. It is usual to scourge a slave, or punish him with
chains or hard labor. They are sometimes killed by their masters; not
through severity of chastisement, but in the heat of passion, like an
enemy; with this difference, that it is done with impunity. [140] Freedmen
are little superior to slaves; seldom filling any important office in the
family; never in the state, except in those tribes which are under regal
government. [141] There, they rise above the free-born, and even the
nobles: in the rest, the subordinate condition of the freedmen is a proof
of freedom.
26. Lending money upon interest, and increasing it by usury, [142] is
unknown amongst them: and this ignorance more effectually prevents the
practice than a prohibition would do. The lands are occupied by townships,
[143] in allotments proportional to the number of cultivators; and are
afterwards parcelled out among the individuals of the district, in shares
according to the rank and condition of each person. [144] The wide extent
of plain facilitates this partition. The arable lands are annually
changed, and a part left fallow; nor do they attempt to make the most of
the fertility and plenty of the soil, by their own industry in planting
orchards, inclosing meadows, and watering gardens. Corn is the only
product required from the earth: hence their year is not divided into so
many seasons as ours; for, while they know and distinguish by name Winter,
Spring, and Summer, they are unacquainted equally with the appellation and
bounty of Autumn. [145]
27. Their funerals are without parade. [146] The only circumstance to
which they attend, is to burn the bodies of eminent persons with some
particular kinds of wood. Neither vestments nor perfumes are heaped upon
the pile: [147] the arms of the deceased, and sometimes his horse, [148]
are given to the flames. The tomb is a mound of turf. They contemn the
elaborate and costly honours of monumental structures, as mere burthens to
the dead. They soon dismiss tears and lamentations; slowly, sorrow and
regret. They think it the women's part to bewail their friends, the men's
to remember them.
28. This is the sum of what I have been able to learn concerning the
origin and manners of the Germans in general. I now proceed to mention
those particulars in which they differ from each other; and likewise to
relate what nations have migrated from Germany into Gaul. That great
writer, the deified Julius, asserts that the Gauls were formerly the
superior people; [149] whence it is probable that some Gallic colonies
passed over into Germany: for how small an obstacle would a river be to
prevent any nation, as it increased in strength, from occupying or
changing settlements as yet lying in common, and unappropriated by the
power of monarchies! Accordingly, the tract betwixt the Hercynian forest
and the rivers Rhine and Mayne was possessed by the Helvetii: [150] and
that beyond, by the Boii; [151] both Gallic tribes. The name of Boiemum
still remains, a memorial of the ancient settlement, though its
inhabitants are now changed. [152] But whether the Aravisci [153] migrated
into Pannonia from the Osi, [154] a German nation; or the Osi into Germany
from the Aravisci; the language, institutions, and manners of both being
still the same, is a matter of uncertainty; for, in their pristine state
of equal indigence and equal liberty, the same advantages and
disadvantages were common to both sides of the river. The Treveri [155]
and Nervii [156] are ambitious of being thought of German origin; as if
the reputation of this descent would distinguish them from the Gauls, whom
they resemble in person and effeminacy. The Vangiones, Triboci, and
Nemetes, [157] who inhabit the bank of the Rhine, are without doubt German
tribes. Nor do the Ubii, [158] although they have been thought worthy of
being made a Roman colony, and are pleased in bearing the name of
Agrippinenses from their founder, blush to acknowledge their origin from
Germany; from whence they formerly migrated, and for their approved
fidelity were settled on the bank of the Rhine, not that they might be
guarded themselves, but that they might serve as a guard against invaders.
29. Of all these people, the most famed for valor are the Batavi; whose
territories comprise but a small part of the banks of the Rhine, but
consist chiefly of an island within it. [159] These were formerly a tribe
of the Catti, who, on account of an intestine division, removed to their
present settlements, in order to become a part of the Roman empire. They
still retain this honor, together with a memorial of their ancient
alliance; [160] for they are neither insulted by taxes, nor oppressed by
farmers of the revenue. Exempt from fiscal burthens and extraordinary
contributions, and kept apart for military use alone, they are reserved,
like a magazine of arms, for the purposes of war. The nation of the
Mattiaci [161] is under a degree of subjection of the same kind: for the
greatness of the Roman people has carried a reverence for the empire
beyond the Rhine and the ancient limits. The Mattiaci, therefore, though
occupying a settlement and borders [162] on the opposite side of the
river, from sentiment and attachment act with us; resembling the Batavi in
every respect, except that they are animated with a more vigorous spirit
by the soil and air of their own country. [163] I do not reckon among the
people of Germany those who occupy the Decumate lands, [164] although
inhabiting between the Rhine and Danube. Some of the most fickle of the
Gauls, rendered daring through indigence, seized upon this district of
uncertain property. Afterwards, our boundary line being advanced, and a
chain of fortified posts established, it became a skirt of the empire, and
part of the Roman province. [165]
30. Beyond these dwell the Catti, [166] whose settlements, beginning from
the Hercynian forest, are in a tract of country less open and marshy than
those which overspread the other states of Germany; for it consists of a
continued range of hills, which gradually become more scattered; and the
Hercynian forest [167] both accompanies and leaves behind, its Catti. This
nation is distinguished by hardier frames, [168] compactness of limb,
fierceness of countenance, and superior vigor of mind. For Germans, they
have a considerable share of understanding and sagacity; they choose able
persons to command, and obey them when chosen; keep their ranks; seize
opportunities; restrain impetuous motions; distribute properly the
business of the day; intrench themselves against the night; account
fortune dubious, and valor only certain; and, what is extremely rare, and
only a consequence of discipline, depend more upon the general than the
army. [169] Their force consists entirely in infantry; who, besides their
arms, are obliged to carry tools and provisions. Other nations appear to
go to a battle; the Catti, to war. Excursions and casual encounters are
rare amongst them. It is, indeed, peculiar to cavalry soon to obtain, and
soon to yield, the victory. Speed borders upon timidity; slow movements
are more akin to steady valor.
31. A custom followed among the other German nations only by a few
individuals, of more daring spirit than the rest, is adopted by general
consent among the Catti. From the time they arrive at years of maturity
they let their hair and beard grow; [170] and do not divest themselves of
this votive badge, the promise of valor, till they have slain an enemy.
Over blood and spoils they unveil the countenance, and proclaim that they
have at length paid the debt of existence, and have proved themselves
worthy of their country and parents. The cowardly and effeminate continue
in their squalid disguise. The bravest among them wear also an iron ring
[171] (a mark of ignominy in that nation) as a kind of chain, till they
have released themselves by the slaughter of a foe. Many of the Catti
assume this distinction, and grow hoary under the mark, conspicuous both
to foes and friends. By these, in every engagement, the attack is begun:
they compose the front line, presenting a new spectacle of terror. Even in
peace they do not relax the sternness of their aspect. They have no house,
land, or domestic cares: they are maintained by whomsoever they visit:
lavish of another's property, regardless of their own; till the debility
of age renders them unequal to such a rigid course of military virtue.
[172]
32. Next to the Catti, on the banks of the Rhine, where, now settled in
its channel, it is become a sufficient boundary, dwell the Usipii and
Tencteri. [173] The latter people, in addition to the usual military
reputation, are famed for the discipline of their cavalry; nor is the
infantry of the Catti in higher estimation than the horse of the Tencteri.
Their ancestors established it, and are imitated by posterity.
Horsemanship is the sport of their children, the point of emulation of
their youth, and the exercise in which they persevere to old age. Horses
are bequeathed along with the domestics, the household gods, and the
rights of inheritance: they do not, however, like other things, go to the
eldest son, but to the bravest and most warlike.
33. Contiguous to the Tencteri were formerly the Bructeri; [174] but
report now says that the Chamavi and Angrivarii, [175] migrating into
their country, have expelled and entirely extirpated them, [176] with the
concurrence of the neighboring nations, induced either by hatred of their
arrogance, [177] love of plunder, or the favor of the gods towards the
Romans. For they even gratified us with the spectacle of a battle, in
which above sixty thousand Germans were slain, not by Roman arms, but,
what was still grander, by mutual hostilities, as it were for our pleasure
and entertainment. [178] May the nations retain and perpetuate, if not an
affection for us, at least an animosity against each other! since, while
the fate of the empire is thus urgent, [179] fortune can bestow no higher
benefit upon us, than the discord of our enemies.
34. Contiguous to the Angrivarii and Chamavi backwards lie the Dulgibini,
Chasauri, [180] and other nations less known. [181] In front, the Frisii
[182] succeed; who are distinguished by the appellations of Greater and
Lesser, from their proportional power. The settlements of both stretch
along the border of the Rhine to the ocean; and include, besides, vast
lakes, [183] which have been navigated by Roman fleets. We have even
explored the ocean itself on that side; and fame reports that columns of
Hercules [184] are still remaining on that coast; whether it be that
Hercules was ever there in reality, or that whatever great and magnificent
is anywhere met with is, by common consent, ascribed to his renowned name.
The attempt of Drusus Germanicus [185] to make discoveries in these parts
was sufficiently daring; but the ocean opposed any further inquiry into
itself and Hercules. After a while no one renewed the attempt; and it was
thought more pious and reverential to believe the actions of the gods,
than to investigate them.
35. Hitherto we have traced the western side of Germany. It turns from
thence with a vast sweep to the north: and first occurs the country of the
Chauci, [186] which, though it begins immediately from Frisia, and
occupies part of the seashore, yet stretches so far as to border on all
the nations before mentioned, till it winds round so as to meet the
territories of the Catti. This immense tract is not only possessed, but
filled by the Chauci; a people the noblest of the Germans, who choose to
maintain their greatness by justice rather than violence. Without
ambition, without ungoverned desires, quiet and retired, they provoke no
wars, they are guilty of no rapine or plunder; and it is a principal proof
of their power and bravery, that the superiority they possess has not been
acquired by unjust means. Yet all have arms in readiness; [187] and, if
necessary, an army is soon raised: for they abound in men and horses, and
maintain their military reputation even in inaction.
36. Bordering on the Chauci and Catti are the Cherusci; [188] who, for
want of an enemy, long cherished a too lasting and enfeebling peace: a
state more flattering than secure; since the repose enjoyed amidst
ambitious and powerful neighbors is treacherous; and when an appeal is
made to the sword, moderation and probity are names appropriated by the
victors. Thus, the Cherusci, who formerly bore the titles of just and
upright, are now charged with cowardice and folly; and the good fortune of
the Catti, who subdued them, has grown into wisdom. The ruin of the
Cherusci involved that of the Fosi, [189] a neighboring tribe, equal
partakers of their adversity, although they had enjoyed an inferior share
of their prosperity.
37. In the same quarter of Germany, adjacent to the ocean, dwell the
Cimbri; [191] a small [192] state at present, but great in renown. [193]
Of their past grandeur extensive vestiges still remain, in encampments and
lines on either shore, [194] from the compass of which the strength and
numbers of the nation may still be computed, and credit derived to the
account of so prodigious an army. It was in the 640th year of Rome that
the arms of the Cimbri were first heard of, under the consulate of
Caecilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo; from which era to the second
consulate of the emperor Trajan [195] is a period of nearly 210 years. So
long has Germany withstood the arms of Rome. During this long interval
many mutual wounds have been inflicted. Not the Samnite, the Carthaginian,
Spain, Gaul, or Parthia, have given more frequent alarms; for the liberty
of the Germans is more vigorous than the monarchy of the Arsacidae. What
has the East, which has itself lost Pacorus, and suffered an overthrow
from Ventidius, [196] to boast against us, but the slaughter of Crassus?
But the Germans, by the defeat or capture of Carbo, [197] Cassius, [198]
Scaurus Aurelius, [199] Servilius Caepio, and Cneius Manlius, [200]
deprived the Roman people of five consular armies; [201] and afterwards
took from Augustus himself Varus with three legions. [202] Nor did Caius
Marius [203] in Italy, the deified Julius [204] in Gaul, or Drusus, [204]
Nero, [204] or Germanicus [204] in their own country, defeat then without
loss. The subsequent mighty threats of Caligula terminated in ridicule.
Then succeeded tranquillity; till, seizing the occasion of our discords
and civil wars, they forced the winter-quarters of the legions, [205] and
even aimed at the possession of Gaul; and, again expelled thence, they
have in latter times been rather triumphed over [206] than vanquished.
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