Richard F. Burton - "The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 5"

Thomas Babington Macaulay - "The History of England from the Accession of James II, Vol. 5"

Thomas Henry Huxley - "This is Essay #2 from Science and Hebrew Tradition"

Walter Lippmann - "A Preface to Politics"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

On the Genesis of Species

S >> St. George Mivart >> On the Genesis of Species



ON THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

[Illustration]

ON THE

GENESIS OF SPECIES.

BY
ST. GEORGE MIVART, F.R.S.

London:
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1871.

[_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved._]

LONDON:
R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
BREAD STREET HILL.

* * * * *


TO

SIR HENRY HOLLAND, BART., M.D.,

F.R.S., D.C.L., ETC. ETC.

MY DEAR SIR HENRY,

In giving myself the pleasure to dedicate, as I now do, this work to you,
it is not my intention to identify you with any views of my own advocated
in it.

I simply avail myself of an opportunity of paying a tribute of esteem and
regard to my earliest scientific friend--the first to encourage me in
pursuing the study of nature.

I remain,
MY DEAR SIR HENRY,
Ever faithfully yours,
ST. GEORGE MIVART.

7, NORTH BANK, REGENT'S PARK,
_December 8, 1870._

{vii}
* * * * *


CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

_INTRODUCTORY_

The problem of the genesis of species stated.--Nature of its probable
solution.--Importance of the question.--Position here defended.--Statement
of the DARWINIAN THEORY.--Its applicability to details of geographical
distribution; to rudimentary structures; to homology; to mimicry,
&c.--Consequent utility of the theory.--Its wide acceptance.--Reasons for
this other than, and in addition to, its scientific value. Its
simplicity.--Its bearing on religious questions.--_Odium theologicum_ and
_odium antitheologicum_.--The antagonism supposed by many to exist between
it and theology neither necessary nor universal.--Christian authorities in
favour of evolution.--Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under
Domestication."--Difficulties of the Darwinian theory enumerated ... _Page_
1

CHAPTER II.

_THE INCOMPETENCY OF "NATURAL SELECTION" TO ACCOUNT FOR THE INCIPIENT
STAGES OF USEFUL STRUCTURES._

Mr. Darwin supposes that Natural-Selection acts by slight
variations.--These must be useful at once.--Difficulties as to the giraffe;
as to mimicry; as to the heads of flat-fishes; as to the origin and
constancy of the vertebrate, limbs; as to whalebone; as to the young
kangaroo; as to sea-urchins; as to certain processes of {viii}
metamorphosis; as to the mammary gland; as to certain ape characters; as to
the rattlesnake and cobra; as to the process of formation of the eye and
ear; as to the fully developed condition of the eye and ear; as to the
voice; as to shell-fish; as to orchids; as to ants.--The necessity for the
simultaneous modification of many individuals.--Summary and conclusion ...
_Page_ 23

CHAPTER III.

_THE CO-EXISTENCE OF CLOSELY SIMILAR STRUCTURES OF DIVERSE ORIGIN._

Chances against concordant variations.--Examples of discordant
ones.--Concordant variations not unlikely on a non-Darwinian evolutionary
hypothesis.--Placental and implacental mammals.--Birds and
reptiles.--Independent origins of similar sense organs.--The ear.--The
eye.--Other coincidences.--Causes besides Natural Selection produce
concordant variations in certain geographical regions.--Causes besides
Natural Selection produce concordant variations in certain zoological and
botanical groups.--There are homologous parts not genetically
related.--Harmony in respect of the organic and inorganic worlds.--Summary
and conclusion ... _Page_ 63

CHAPTER IV.

_MINUTE AND GRADUAL MODIFICATIONS._

There are difficulties as to minute modifications, even if not
fortuitous.--Examples of sudden and considerable modifications of different
kinds.--Professor Owen's view.--Mr. Wallace.--Professor Huxley.--Objections
to sudden changes.--Labyrinthodont.--Potto.--Cetacea.--As to origin of
bird's wing.--Tendrils of climbing plants.--Animals once supposed to be
connecting links.--Early specialization of
structure.--Macrauchenia.--Glyptodon.--Sabre-toothed tiger.--Conclusion ...
_Page_ 97

{ix}
CHAPTER V.

_AS TO SPECIFIC STABILITY._

What is meant by the phrase "specific stability;" such stability to be
expected _a priori_, or else considerable changes at once.--Rapidly
increasing difficulty of intensifying race characters; alleged causes of
this phenomenon; probably an internal cause co-operates.--A certain
definiteness in variations.--Mr. Darwin admits the principle of specific
stability in certain cases of unequal variability.--The goose.--The
peacock.--The guinea fowl.--Exceptional causes of variation under
domestication.--Alleged tendency to reversion.--Instances.--Sterility of
hybrids.--Prepotency of pollen of same species, but of different
race.--Mortality in young gallinaceous hybrids.--A bar to intermixture
exists somewhere.--Guinea-pigs.--Summary and conclusion ... _Page_ 113

CHAPTER VI.

_SPECIES AND TIME._

Two relations of species to time.--No evidence of past existence of
minutely intermediate forms when such might be expected _a priori_.--Bats,
Pterodactyles, Dinosauria, and Birds.--Ichthyosauria, Chelonia, and
Anoura.--Horse ancestry.--Labyrinthodonts and Trilobites.--Two subdivisions
of the second relation of species to time.--Sir William Thomson's
views.--Probable period required for ultimate specific evolution from
primitive ancestral forms.---Geometrical increase of time required for
rapidly multiplying increase of structural differences.--Proboscis
monkey.--Time required for deposition of strata necessary for Darwinian
evolution.--High organization of Silurian forms of life.--Absence of
fossils in oldest rocks.--Summary and conclusion ... _Page_ 128

CHAPTER VII.

_SPECIES AND SPACE._

The geographical distribution of animals presents difficulties.--These not
insurmountable in themselves; harmonize with other
difficulties.--Fresh-water fishes.--Forms common to Africa and India; to
Africa and South America; to China and Australia; to North America and {x}
China; to New Zealand and South America; to South America and Tasmania; to
South America and Australia.--Pleurodont lizards.--Insectivorous
mammals.--Similarity of European and South American frogs.--Analogy between
European salmon and fishes of New Zealand, &c.--An ancient Antarctic
continent probable.--Other modes of accounting for facts of
distribution.--Independent origin of closely similar forms.--Conclusion ...
_Page_ 144

CHAPTER VIII.

_HOMOLOGIES._

Animals made up of parts mutually related in various ways.--What homology
is.--Its various kinds.--Serial homology.--Lateral homology.--Vertical
homology.--Mr. Herbert Spencer's explanations.--An internal power
necessary, as shown by facts of comparative anatomy.---Of teratology.--M.
St. Hilaire.--Professor Burt Wilder.--Foot-wings.--Facts of pathology.--Mr.
James Paget.--Dr. William Budd.--The existence of such an internal power of
individual development diminishes the improbability of an analogous law of
specific origination ... _Page_ 155

CHAPTER IX.

_EVOLUTION AND ETHICS._

The origin of morals an inquiry not foreign to the subject of this
book.--Modern utilitarian view as to that origin.--Mr. Darwin's speculation
as to the origin of the abhorrence of incest.--Cause assigned by him
insufficient.--Care of the aged and infirm opposed by "Natural Selection;"
also self-abnegation and asceticism.--Distinctness of the ideas right and
useful.--Mr. John Stuart Mill.--Insufficiency of "Natural Selection" to
account for the origin of the distinction between duty and
profit.--Distinction of moral acts into material and formal.--No ground{xi}
for believing that formal morality exists in brutes.--Evidence that it does
exist in savages.--Facility with which savages may be
misunderstood.--Objections as to diversity of customs.--Mr. Button's review
of Mr. Herbert Spencer.--Anticipatory character of morals.--Sir John
Lubbock's explanation.--Summary and conclusion ... _Page_ 188

CHAPTER X.

_PANGENESIS._

A provisional hypothesis supplementing "Natural Selection."--Statement of
the hypothesis.--Difficulty as to multitude of gemmules.--As to certain
modes of reproduction.--As to formations without the requisite
gemmules.--Mr. Lewes and Professor Delpino.--Difficulty as to developmental
force of gemmules.--As to their spontaneous fission.--Pangenesis and
Vitalism.--Paradoxical reality.--Pangenesis scarcely superior to anterior
hypotheses.--Buffon.--Owen.--Herbert Spencer.--Gemmules as mysterious as
"physiological units."--Conclusion ... _Page_ 208

CHAPTER XI.

_SPECIFIC GENESIS._

Review of the statements and arguments of preceding chapters.--Cumulative
argument against predominant action of "Natural Selection."--Whether
anything positive as well as negative can be enunciated.--Constancy of laws
of nature does not necessarily imply constancy of specific
evolution.--Possible exceptional stability of existing epoch.--Probability
that an internal cause of change exists.--Innate powers somewhere must be
accepted.--Symbolism of molecular action under vibrating impulses.
Professor Owen's statement.--Statement of the Author's view.--It avoids the
difficulties which oppose "Natural Selection."--It harmonizes apparently
conflicting conceptions.--Summary and conclusion ... _Page_ 220 [Page xii]

CHAPTER XII.

_THEOLOGY AND EVOLUTION._

Prejudiced opinions on the subject.--"Creation" sometimes denied from
prejudice.--The unknowable.--Mr. Herbert Spencer's objections to theism; to
creation.--Meanings of term "creation."--Confusion from not distinguishing
between "primary" and "derivative" creation.--Mr. Darwin's
objections.--Bearing of Christianity on evolution.--Supposed opposition,
the result of a misconception.--Theological authority not opposed to
evolution.--St. Augustin.--St. Thomas Aquinas.--Certain consequences of
want of flexibility of mind.--Reason and imagination.--The first cause and
demonstration.--Parallel between Christianity and natural theology.--What
evolution of species is.--Professor Agassiz.--Innate powers must be
recognized.--Bearing of evolution on religious belief.--Professor
Huxley.--Professor Owen.--Mr. Wallace.--Mr. Darwin.--_A priori_ conception
of Divine action.--Origin of man.--Absolute creation and dogma.--Mr.
Wallace's view.--A supernatural origin for man's body not necessary.--Two
orders of being in man.--Two modes of origin.--Harmony of the physical,
hyperphysical, and supernatural.--Reconciliation of science and religion as
regards evolution.--Conclusion ... _Page_ 243

INDEX ... _Page_ 289

{xiii}
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Leaf Butterfly in flight and repose (_from Mr. A. Wallace's "Malay
Archipelago"_) ... 31

Walking-Leaf Insect ... 35

Pleuronectidae, with the peculiarly placed eye in different positions (_from
Dr. Traquair's paper in Linn. Soc. Trans., 1865_) ... 37, 166

Mouth of Whale (_from Professor Owen's "Odontography"_) ... 40

Four plates of Baleen seen obliquely from within (_from Professor Owen's
"Odontography"_) ... 41

Dugong ... 41, 175

Echinus or Sea Urchin ... 43, 167

Pedicellariae of Echinus very much enlarged ... 44

Rattlesnake ... 49

Cobra (_from Sir Andrew Smith's "Southern Africa"_) ... 50

Wingbones of Pterodactyle, Bat, and Bird (_from Mr. Andrew Murray's
"Geographical Distribution of Mammals"_) ... 64, 130, 157

Skeleton of Flying-Dragon ... 65, 158

Centipede (_from a specimen in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons_) ... 66, 159

Teeth of Urotrichus and Perameles ... 68

The Archeopteryx (_from Professor Owen's "Anatomy of Vertebrata"_) ... 73,
132

{xiv}
Cuttle-Fish ... 75, 141

Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus ... 78, 107, 132, 177

Cytheridea Torosa (_from Messrs. Brady and Robertson's paper in Ann. and
Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1870_) ... 79

A Polyzoon, with Bird's-head processes ... 80

Bird's-head processes greatly enlarged ... 81

Antechimis Minutissimus and Mus Delicatulus (_from Mr. Andrew Murray's
"Geographical Distribution of Mammals"_) ... 82

Outlines of Wings of Butterflies of Celebes compared with those of allied
species elsewhere ... 86

Great Shielded Grasshopper ... 89

The Six-shafted Bird of Paradise ... 90

The Long-tailed Bird of Paradise ... 91

The Red Bird of Paradise ... 92

Horned Flies ... 93

The Magnificent Bird of Paradise ... 93

_(The above seven figures are from Mr. A. Wallace's "Malay Archipelago"_)

Much enlarged horizontal Section of the Tooth of a Labyrinthodon (_from
Professor Owen's "Odontography"_) ... 104

Hand of the Potto (_from life_) ... 105

Skeleton of Plesiosaurus ... 106, 133

The Aye-Aye (_from Trans, of Zool. Soc._) ... 108

Dentition of Sabre-toothed Tiger (_from Professor Owen's "Odontography"_)
... 110

Trilobite ... 135, 171

Inner side of Lower Jaw of Pleurodont Lizard (_from Professor Owen's
"Odontography"_) ... 148

Solenodon (_from Berlin Trans._) ... 149

Tarsal Bones of Galago and Cheirogaleus (_from Proc. Zool. Soc._) ... 159

Squilla ... 160

Parts of the Skeleton of the Lobster ... 161 [Page xv]

Spine of Galago Allenii (_from Proc. Zool. Soc._) ... 162

Vertebrae of Axolotl (_from Proc. Zool. Soc._) ... 165

Annelid undergoing spontaneous fission ... 169, 211

Aard-Vark (_Orycteropus capensis_) ... 174

Pangolin (_Manis_) ... 175

Skeleton of Manus and Pes of a Tailed Batrachian (_from Professor
Gegenbaur's "Tarsus and Carpus"_) ... 178

Flexor Muscles of Hand of Nycticetus (_from Proc. Zool. Soc._) ... 180

The Fibres of Corti ... 279

{1}
* * * * *


THE GENESIS OF SPECIES.

CHAPTER I.

_INTRODUCTORY._

The problem of the genesis of species stated.--Nature of its probable
solution.--Importance of the question.--Position here
defended.--Statement of the DARWINIAN THEORY.--Its applicability to
details of geographical distribution; to rudimentary structures; to
homology; to mimicry, &c.--Consequent utility of the theory.--Its wide
acceptance.--Reasons for this, other than, and in addition to, its
scientific value.--Its simplicity.--Its bearing on religious
questions.--_Odium theologicum_ and _odium antitheologicum_.--The
antagonism supposed by many to exist between it and theology neither
necessary nor universal.--Christian authorities in favour of
evolution.--Mr. Darwin's "Animals and Plants under
Domestication."--Difficulties of the Darwinian theory enumerated.

The great problem which has so long exercised the minds of naturalists,
namely, that concerning the origin of different kinds of animals and
plants, seems at last to be fairly on the road to receive--perhaps at no
very distant future--as satisfactory a solution as it can well have.

But the problem presents peculiar difficulties. The birth of a "species"
has often been compared with that of an "individual." The origin, however,
of even an individual animal or plant (that which determines an embryo to
evolve itself,--as, _e.g._, a spider rather than a beetle, a rose-plant {2}
rather than a pear) is shrouded in obscurity. _A fortiori_ must this be the
case with the origin of a "species."

Moreover, the analogy between a "species" and an "individual" is a very
incomplete one. The word "individual" denotes a concrete whole with a real,
separate, and distinct existence. The word "species," on the other hand,
denotes a peculiar congeries of characters, innate powers and qualities,
and a certain nature realized indeed in individuals, but having no separate
existence, except ideally as a thought in some mind.

Thus the birth of a "species" can only be compared metaphorically, and very
imperfectly, with that of an "individual."

Individuals as _individuals_, actually and directly produce and bring forth
other individuals; but no "congeries of characters" no "common nature" _as
such_, can directly bring forth another "common nature," because, _per se_,
it has no existence (other than ideal) apart from the individuals in which
it is manifested.

The problem then is, "by what combination of natural laws does a new
'common nature' appear upon the scene of realized existence?" _i.e._ how is
an individual embodying such new characters produced?

For the approximation we have of late made towards the solution of this
problem, we are mainly indebted to the invaluable labours and active brains
of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace.

Nevertheless, important as has been the impulse and direction given by
those writers to both our observations and speculations, the solution will
not (if the views here advocated are correct) ultimately present that
aspect and character with which it has issued from the hands of those
writers.

Neither, most certainly, will that solution agree in appearance or
substance with the more or less crude conceptions which have been put forth
by most of the opponents of Messrs. Darwin and Wallace. [Page 3]

Rather, judging from the more recent manifestations of thought on opposite
sides, we may expect the development of some _tertium quid_--the resultant
of forces coming from different quarters, and not coinciding in direction
with any one of them.

As error is almost always partial truth, and so consists in the
exaggeration or distortion of one verity by the suppression of another
which qualifies and modifies the former, we may hope, by the synthesis of
the truths contended for by various advocates, to arrive at the one
conciliating reality.

Signs of this conciliation are not wanting: opposite scientific views,
opposite philosophical conceptions, and opposite religious beliefs, are
rapidly tending by their vigorous conflict to evolve such a systematic and
comprehensive view of the genesis of species as will completely harmonize
with the teachings of science, philosophy, and religion.

To endeavour to add one stone to this temple of concord, to try and remove
a few of the misconceptions and mutual misunderstandings which oppose
harmonious action, is the aim and endeavour of the present work. This aim
it is hoped to attain, not by shirking difficulties, but analysing them,
and by endeavouring to dig down to the common root which supports and
unites diverging stems of truth.

It cannot but be a gain when the labourers in the three fields above
mentioned, namely, science, philosophy, and religion, shall fully recognize
this harmony. Then the energy too often spent in futile controversy, or
withheld through prejudice, may be profitably and reciprocally exercised
for the mutual benefit of all.

Remarkable is the rapidity with which an interest in the question of
specific origination has spread. But a few years ago it scarcely occupied
the minds of any but naturalists. Then the crude theory put forth by
Lamarck, and by his English interpreter the author of the "Vestiges of
Creation," had rather discredited than helped on a belief in organic
evolution--a belief, that is, in new kinds being produced from older {4}
ones by the ordinary and constant operation of natural laws. Now, however,
this belief is widely diffused. Indeed, there are few drawing-rooms where
it is not the subject of occasional discussion, and artisans and schoolboys
have their views as to the permanence of organic forms. Moreover, the
reception of this doctrine tends actually, though by no means necessarily,
to be accompanied by certain beliefs with regard to quite distinct and very
momentous subject-matter. So that the question of the "Genesis of Species"
is not only one of great interest, but also of much importance.

But though the calm and thorough consideration of this matter is at the
present moment exceedingly desirable, yet the actual importance of the
question itself as to its consequences in the domain of theology has been
strangely exaggerated by many, both of its opponents and supporters. This
is especially the case with that form of the evolution theory which is
associated with the name of Mr. Darwin; and yet neither the refutation nor
the demonstration of that doctrine would be necessarily accompanied by the
results which are hoped for by one party and dreaded by another.

The general theory of evolution has indeed for some time past steadily
gained ground, and it may be safely predicted that the number of facts
which can be brought forward in its support will, in a few years, be vastly
augmented. But the prevalence of this theory need alarm no one, for it is,
without any doubt, perfectly consistent with strictest and most orthodox
Christian theology. Moreover, it is not altogether without obscurities, and
cannot yet be considered as fully demonstrated.

The special Darwinian hypothesis, however, is beset with certain scientific
difficulties, which must by no means be ignored, and some of which, I
venture to think, are absolutely insuperable. What Darwinism or "Natural
Selection" is, will be shortly explained; but before doing so, I think {5}
it well to state the object of this book, and the view taken up and
defended in it. It is its object to maintain the position that "Natural
Selection" acts, and indeed must act, but that still, in order that we may
be able to account for the production of known kinds of animals and plants,
it requires to be supplemented by the action of some other natural law or
laws as yet undiscovered.[1] Also, that the consequences which have been
drawn from Evolution, whether exclusively Darwinian or not, to the
prejudice of religion, by no means follow from it, and are in fact
illegitimate.

The Darwinian theory of "Natural Selection" may be shortly stated
thus:[2]--

Every kind of animal and plant tends to increase in numbers in a
geometrical progression.

Every kind of animal and plant transmits a general likeness, with
individual differences, to its offspring.

Every individual may present minute variations of any kind and in any
direction.

Past time has been practically infinite.

Every individual has to endure a very severe struggle for existence, owing
to the tendency to geometrical increase of all kinds of animals and plants,
while the total animal and vegetable population (man and his agency
excepted) remains almost stationary.

Thus, every variation of a kind tending to save the life of the individual
possessing it, or to enable it more surely to propagate its kind, will in
the long run be preserved, and will transmit its favourable peculiarity to
some of its offspring, which peculiarity will thus become intensified {6}
till it reaches the maximum degree of utility. On the other hand,
individuals presenting unfavourable peculiarities will be ruthlessly
destroyed. The action of this law of Natural Selection may thus be well
represented by the convenient expression "survival of the fittest."[3]

Now this conception of Mr. Darwin's is perhaps the most interesting theory,
in relation to natural science, which has been promulgated during the
present century. Remarkable, indeed, is the way in which it groups together
such a vast and varied series of biological[4] facts, and even paradoxes,
which it appears more or less clearly to explain, as the following
instances will show. By this theory of "Natural Selection," light is thrown
on the more singular facts relating to the geographical distribution of
animals and plants; for example, on the resemblance between the past and
present inhabitants of different parts of the earth's surface. Thus in
Australia remains have been found of creatures closely allied to kangaroos
and other kinds of pouched beasts, which in the present day exist nowhere
but in the Australian region. Similarly in South America, and nowhere else,
are found sloths and armadillos, and in that same part of the world have
been discovered bones of animals different indeed from existing sloths and
armadillos, but yet much more nearly related to them than to any other
kinds whatever. Such coincidences between the existing and antecedent
geographical distribution of forms are numerous. Again, "Natural Selection"
serves to explain the circumstance that often in adjacent islands we find
animals closely resembling, and appearing to represent, each other; while
if certain of these islands show signs (by depth of surrounding sea or what
not) of more ancient separation, the animals inhabiting them exhibit a {7}
corresponding divergence.[5] The explanation consists in representing the
forms inhabiting the islands as being the modified descendants of a common
stock, the modification being greatest where the separation has been the
most prolonged.

"Rudimentary structures" also receive an explanation by means of this
theory. These structures are parts which are apparently functionless and
useless where they occur, but which represent similar parts of large size
and functional importance in other animals. Examples of such "rudimentary
structures" are the foetal teeth of whales, and of the front part of the
jaw of ruminating quadrupeds. These foetal structures are minute in size,
and never cut the gum, but are reabsorbed without ever coming into use,
while no other teeth succeed them or represent them in the adult condition
of those animals. The mammary glands of all male beasts constitute another
example, as also does the wing of the apteryx--a New Zealand bird utterly
incapable of flight, and with the wing in a quite rudimentary condition
(whence the name of the animal). Yet this rudimentary wing contains bones
which are miniature representatives of the ordinary wing-bones of birds of
flight. Now, the presence of these useless bones and teeth is explained if
they may be considered as actually being the inherited diminished
representatives of parts of large size and functional importance in the
remote ancestors of these various animals.

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