The Forme of Cury
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Samuel Pegge >> The Forme of Cury
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Cheese. See the last article, and what is said of the old Britons
above; as likewise our Glossary.
Ale is applied, No. 113, et alibi; and often in the Ediitor's MS. as
6, 7, &c. It is used instead of wine, No. 22, and sometimes along
with bread in the Editor's MS. [91] Indeed it is a current opinion
that brewing with hops was not introduced here till the reign of king
Henry VIII. [92] _Bere_, however, is mentioned A. 1504. [93]
Wine is common, both red, and white, No. 21. 53. 37. This article
they partly had of their own growth, [94] and partly by importation
from France [95] and Greece [96]. They had also Rhenish [97], and
probably several other sorts. The _vynegreke_ is among the sweet
wines in a MS of Mr. Astle.
Rice. As this grain was but little, if at all, cultivated in England,
it must have been brought from abroad. Whole or ground-rice enters
into a large number of our compositions, and _resmolle_, No. 96, is a
direct preparation of it.
Alkenet. _Anchusa_ is not only used for colouring, but also fried and
yfoundred, 62. yfondyt, 162. i. e. dissolved, or ground. 'Tis thought
to be a species of the _buglos_.
Saffron. Saffrwm, Brit. whence it appears, that this name ran through
most languages. Mr. Weever informs us, that this excellent drug was
brought hither in the time of Edward III. [98] and it may be true;
but still no such quantity could be produced here in the next reign
as to supply that very large consumption which we see made of it in
our Roll, where it occurs not only as an ingredient in the processes,
but also is used for colouring, for flourishing, or garnishing. It
makes a yellow, No. 68, and was imported from Egypt, or Cilicia, or
other parts of the Levant, where the Turks call it Safran, from the
Arabic Zapheran, whence the English, Italians, French, and Germans,
have apparently borrowed their respective names of it. The Romans
were well acquainted with the drug, but did not use it much in the
kitchen [99]. Pere Calmet says, the Hebrews were acquainted with
anise, ginger, saffron, but no other spices [100].
Pynes. There is some difficulty in enucleating the meaning of this
word, though it occurs so often. It is joined with dates, No. 20. 52.
with honey clarified, 63. with powder-fort, saffron, and salt, 161.
with ground dates, raisins, good powder, and salt, 186. and lastly
they are fried, 38. Now the dish here is _morree_, which in the
Editor's MS. 37, is made of mulberries (and no doubt has its name
from them), and yet there are no mulberries in our dish, but pynes,
and therefore I suspect, that mulberries and pynes are the same, and
indeed this fruit has some resemblance to a pynecone. I conceive
_pynnonade_, the dish, No. 51, to be so named from the pynes therein
employed; and quare whether _pyner_ mentioned along with powder-fort,
saffron, and salt, No. 155, as above in No. 161, should not be read
_pynes_. But, after all, we have cones brought hither from Italy full
of nuts, or kernels, which upon roasting come out of their _capsula_,
and are much eaten by the common people, and these perhaps may be the
thing intended.
[Addenda: after _intended_. add, 'See _Ray_, Trav. p. 283. 407. and
_Wright's_ Trav. p. 112.']
Honey was the great and universal sweetner in remote antiquity, and
particularly in this island, where it was the chief constituent of
_mead_ and _metheglin_. It is said, that at this day in _Palestine_
they use honey in the greatest part of their ragouts [101]. Our cooks
had a method of clarifying it, No. 18. 41. which was done by putting
it in a pot with whites of eggs and water, beating them well together;
then setting it over the fire, and boiling it; and when it was ready
to boil over to take it and cool it, No. 59. This I presume is called
_clere honey_, No. 151. And, when honey was so much in use, it
appears from Barnes that _refining_ it was a trade of itself [102].
Sugar, or Sugur [103], was now beginning here to take place of honey;
however, they are used together, No. 67. Sugar came from the Indies,
by way of Damascus and Aleppo, to Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, and from
these last places to us [104]. It is here not only frequently used,
but was of various sorts, as _cypre_, No. 41. 99. 120. named probably
from the isle of Cyprus, whence it might either come directly to us,
or where it had received some improvement by way of refining. There
is mention of _blanch-powder or white sugar_, 132. They, however,
were not the same, for see No. 193. Sugar was clarified sometimes
with wine [105].
Spices. _Species_. They are mentioned in general No. 133, and _whole
spices_, 167, 168. but they are more commonly specified, and are
indeed greatly used, though being imported from abroad, and from so
far as Italy or the Levant (and even there must be dear), some may
wonder at this: but it shouid be considered, that our Roll was
chiefly compiled for the use of noble and princely tables; and the
same may be said of the Editor's MS. The spices came from the same
part of the world, and by the same route, as sugar did. The _spicery_
was an ancient department at court, and had its proper officers.
As to the particular sorts, these are,
Cinamon. _Canell_. 14. 191. _Canel_, Editor's MS. 10. _Kanell_, ibid.
32. is the Italian _Canella_. See Chaucer. We have the flour or
powder, No. 20. 62. See Wiclif. It is not once mentioned in Apicius.
Macys, 14. 121. Editor's MS. 10. _Maces_, 134. Editor's MS. 27. They
are used whole, No. 158. and are always expressed plurally, though we
now use the singular, _mace_. See Junii Etym.
Cloves. No. 20. Dishes are flourished with them, 22. 158. Editor's MS.
10. 27. where we have _clowys gylofres_, as in our Roll, No. 104.
_Powdour gylofre_ occurs 65. 191. Chaucer has _clowe_ in the singular,
and see him v. Clove-gelofer.
Galyngal, 30. and elsewhere. Galangal, the long rooted cyperus [106],
is a warm cardiac and cephalic. It is used in powder, 30. 47. and was
the chief ingredient in _galentine_, which, I think, took its name
from it.
Pepper. It appears from Pliny that this pungent, warm seasoning, so
much in esteem at Rome [107], came from the East Indies [108], and,
as we may suppose, by way of Alexandria. We obtained it no doubt, in
the 14th century, from the same quarter, though not exactly by the
same route, but by Venice or Genoa. It is used both whole, No. 35,
and in powder, No. 83. And long-pepper occurs, if we read the place
rightly, in No. 191.
Ginger, gyngyn. 64. 136. alibi. Powder is used, 17. 20. alibi. and
Rabelais IV. c. 59. the white powder, 131. and it is the name of a
mess, 139. quare whether _gyngyn_ is not misread for _gyngyr_, for
see Junii Etym. The Romans had their ginger from Troglodytica [109].
Cubebs, 64. 121. are a warm spicy grain from the east.
Grains of Paradice, or _de parys_, 137. [110] are the greater
cardamoms.
Noix muscadez, 191. nutmegs.
The caraway is once mentioned, No. 53. and was an exotic from _Caria_,
whence, according to Mr. Lye, it took its name: 'sunt semina, inquit,
_carri_ vel _carrei_, sic dicti a Caria, ubi copiosissime nascitur
[111].'
Powder-douce, which occurs so often, has been thought by some, who
have just peeped into our Roll, to be the same as sugar, and only a
different name for it; but they are plainly mistaken, as is evident
from 47. 51. 164. 165. where they are mentioned together as different
things. In short, I take powder-douce to be either powder of
galyngal, for see Editor's MS II. 20. 24, or a compound made of
sundry aromatic spices ground or beaten small, and kept always ready
at hand in some proper receptacle. It is otherwise termed _good
powders_, 83. 130. and in Editor's MS 17. 37. 38 [112]. or _powder_
simply, No. 169, 170. _White powder-douce_ occurs No. 51, which seems
to be the same as blanch-powder, 132. 193. called _blaynshe powder_,
and bought ready prepared, in Northumb. Book, p. 19. It is sometimes
used with powder-fort, 38. 156. for which see the next and last
article.
Powder-fort, 10. 11. seems to be a mixture likewise of the warmer
spices, pepper, ginger, &c. pulverized: hence we have _powder-fort of
gynger, other of canel_, 14. It is called _strong powder_, 22. and
perhaps may sometimes be intended by _good powders_. If you will
suppose it to be kept ready prepared by the vender, it may be the
_powder-marchant_, 113. 118. found joined in two places with powder-
douce. This Speght says is what gingerbread is made of; but Skinner
disapproves this explanation, yet, says Mr. Urry, gives none of his
own.
After thus travelling through the most material and most used
ingredients, the _spykenard de spayn_ occurring only once, I shall
beg leave to offer a few words on the nature, and in favour of the
present publication, and the method employed in the prosecution of it.
[Illustration: Take že chese and of flessh of capouns, or of hennes
& hakke smal and grynde hem smale inn a morter, take mylke of
almandes with že broth of freysh beef. ožer freysh flessh, & put the
flessh in že mylke ožer in the broth and set hem to že fyre, & alye
hem with flour of ryse, or gastbon, or amydoun as chargeaunt as že
blank desire, & with zolks of ayren and safroun for to make hit zelow,
and when it is dressit in dysshes with blank desires; styk aboue
clowes de gilofre, & strawe powdour of galyugale above, and serue it
forth.]
The common language of the _formula_, though old and obsolete, as
naturally may be expected from the age of the MS, has no other
difficulty in it but what may easily be overcome by a small degree of
practice and application [113]: however, for the further illustration
of this matter, and the satisfaction of the curious, a _fac simile_
of one of the recipes is represented in the annexed plate. If here
and there a hard and uncouth term or expression may occur, so as to
stop or embarrass the less expert, pains have been taken to explain
them, either in the annotations under the text, or in the Index and
Glossary, for we have given it both titles, as intending it should
answer the purpose of both [114]. Now in forming this alphabet, as
it would have been an endless thing to have recourse to all our
glossaries, now so numerous, we have confined ourselves, except
perhaps in some few instances, in which the authorities are always
mentioned, to certain contemporary writers, such as the Editor's MS,
of which we shall speak more particularly hereafter, Chaucer, and
Wiclif; with whom we have associated Junius' Etymologicon Anglicanum.
As the abbreviations of the Roll are here retained, in order to
establish and confirm the age of it, it has been thought proper to
adopt the types which our printer had projected for Domesday-Book,
with which we find that our characters very nearly coincide.
The names of the dishes and sauces have occasioned the greatest
perplexity. These are not only many in number, but are often so
horrid and barbarous, to our ears at least, as to be inveloped in
several instances in almost impenetrable obscurity. Bishop Godwin
complains of this so long ago as 1616 [115]. The _Contents_ prefixed
will exhibit at once a most formidable list of these hideous names
and titles, so that there is no need to report them here. A few of
these terms the Editor humbly hopes he has happily enucleated, but
still, notwithstanding all his labour and pains, the argument is in
itself so abstruse at this distance of time, the helps so few, and
his abilities in this line of knowledge and science so slender and
confined, that he fears he has left the far greater part of the task
for the more sagacious reader to supply: indeed, he has not the least
doubt, but other gentlemen of curiosity in such matters (and this
publication is intended for them alone) will be so happy as to clear
up several difficulties, which appear now to him insuperable. It must
be confessed again, that the Editor may probably have often failed in
those very points, which he fancies and flatters himself to have
elucidated, but this he is willing to leave to the candour of the
public.
Now in regard to the helps I mentioned; there is not much to be
learnt from the Great Inthronization-feast of archbishop Robert
Winchelsea, A. 1295, even if it were his; but I rather think it
belongs to archbishop William Warham, A. 1504 [116]. Some use,
however, has been made of it.
Ralph Bourne was installed abbot of St. Augustine's, near Canterbury,
A. 1309; and William Thorne has inserted a list of provisions bought
for the feast, with their prices, in his Chronicle [117].
The Great Feast at the Inthronization of George Nevile archbishop of
York, 6 Edward IV. is printed by Mr. Hearne [118], and has been of
good service.
Elizabeth, queen of king Henry VII. was crowned A. 1487, and the
messes at the dinner, in two courses, are registered in the late
edition of Leland's Collectenea, A. 1770 [119], and we have profited
thereby.
The Lenten Inthronization-feast of archbishop William Warham, A. 1504
[120], given us at large by Mr. Hearne [121], has been also consulted.
There is a large catalogue of viands in Rabelais, lib. iv. cap. 59.
60. And the English translation of Mr. Ozell affording little
information, I had recourse to the French original, but not to much
more advantage.
There is also a Royal Feast at the wedding of the earl of Devonshire,
in the Harleian Misc. No. 279, and it has not been neglected.
Randle Holme, in his multifarious _Academy of Armory_, has an
alphabet of terms and dishes [122]; but though I have pressed him
into the service, he has not contributed much as to the more
difficult points.
The Antiquarian Repertory, vol. II. p. 211, exhibits an
entertainment of the mayor of Rochester, A. 1460; but there is little
to be learned from thence. The present work was printed before No. 31
of the Antiquarian Repertory, wherein some ancient recipes in Cookery
are published, came to the Editor's hand.
I must not omit my acknowledgments to my learned friend the present
dean of Carlisle, to whom I stand indebted for his useful notes on
the Northumberland-Household Book, as also for the book itself.
Our chief assistance, however, has been drawn from a MS belonging to
the Editor, denoted, when cited, by the signature _MS. Ed._ It is a
vellum miscellany in small quarto, and the part respecting this
subject consists of ninety-one English recipes (or _nyms_) in cookery.
These are disposed into two parts, and are intituled, 'Hic incipiunt
universa servicia tam de carnibus quam de pissibus.' [123] The second
part, relates to the dressing of fish, and other lenten fare, though
forms are also there intermixed which properly belong to flesh-days.
This leads me to observe, that both here, and in the Roll, messes are
sometimes accommodated, by making the necessary alterations, both to
flesh and fish-days. [124] Now, though the subjects of the MS are
various, yet the hand-writing is uniform; and at the end of one of
the tracts is added, 'Explicit massa Compoti, Anno Dni M'lo CCC'mo
octogesimo primo ipso die Felicis et Audacti.' [125], i.e. 30 Aug.
1381, in the reign of Rich. II. The language and orthography accord
perfectly well with this date, and the collection is consequently
contemporary with our Roll, and was made chiefly, though not
altogether, for the use of great tables, as appears from the
_sturgeon_, and the great quantity of venison therein prescribed for.
As this MS is so often referred to in the annotations, glossary, and
even
in this preface, and is a compilation of the same date, on the
same subject, and in the same language, it has been thought
adviseable to print it, and subjoin it to the Roll; and the rather,
because it really furnishes a considerable enlargement on the
subject, and exhibits many forms unnoticed in the Roll.
To conclude this tedious preliminary detail, though unquestionably a
most necessary part of his duty, the Editor can scarcely forbear
laughing at himself, when he reflects on his past labours, and recollects
those lines of the poet Martial;
Turpe est difficiles habere nugas,
Et stultus labor est ineptiarum. II. 86.
and that possibly mesdames _Carter_ and _Raffald_, with twenty others,
might have far better acquitted themselves in the administration of
this province, than he has done. He has this comfort and satisfaction,
however, that he has done his best; and that some considerable
names amongst the learned, Humelbergius, Torinus, Barthius, our
countryman Dr. Lister, Almeloveen, and others, have bestowed no less
pains in illustrating an author on the same subject, and scarcely of
more importance, the _Pseudo-Apicius_.
[1] If, according to Petavius and Le Clerc, the world was created in
autumn, when the fruits of the earth were both plentiful and in the
highest perfection, the first man had little occasion for much
culinary knowledge; roasting or boiling the cruder productions, with
modes of preserving those which were better ripened, seem to be all
that was necessary for him in the way of _Cury_, And even after he
was displaced from Paradise, I conceive, as many others do, he was
not permitted the use of animal food [Gen. i. 29.]; but that this was
indulged to us, by an enlargement of our charter, after the Flood,
Gen. ix, 3. But, without wading any further in the argument here, the
reader is referred to Gen. ii. 8. seq. iii. 17, seq. 23.
[Addenda: add 'vi. 22. where _Noah_ and the beasts are to live on the
same food.']
[2] Genesis xviii. xxvii. Though their best repasts, from the
politeness of the times, were called by the simple names of _Bread_,
or a _Morsel of bread_, yet they were not unacquainted with modes of
dressing flesh, boiling, roasting, baking; nor with sauce, or
seasoning, as salt and oil, and perhaps some aromatic herbs. Calmet v.
Meats and Eating, and qu. of honey and cream, ibid.
[3] Athenaus, lib. xii. cap. 3.
[4] Athenaus, lib. xii. cap. 3. et Cafaubon. See also Lister ad
Apicium, praf. p. ix. Jungerm. ad Jul. Polluccm, lib. vi. c. 10.
[5] See below. 'Tamen uterque [Torinus et Humelbergius] hac scripta
[i, e. Apicii] ad medicinam vendicarunt.' Lister, praf. p. iv. viii.
ix.
[6] Athenaaus, p. 519. 660.
[7] Priv. Life of the Romans, p. 171. Lister's Pras, p. iii, but Ter.
An, i. 1. Casaub. ad Jul. Capitolin. cap. 5.
[8] Casaub. ad Capitolin. l. c.
[9] Lister's Pras. p. ii. vi. xii.
[10] Fabric. Bibl. Lat. tom. II. p. 794. Hence Dr. Bentley ad Hor. ii.
ferm. 8. 29. stiles it _Pseudapicius_. Vide Listerum, p. iv.
[11] Casar de B. G. v. S 10.
[12] Strabo, lib. iv. p. 200. Pegge's Essay on Coins of Cunob, p. 95.
[13] Archaologia, iv. p. 61. Godwin, de Prasul. p. 596, seq.
[14] Malmsb. p. 9. Galfr. Mon. vi. 12.
[15] Lister. ad Apic. p. xi. where see more to the same purpose.
[16] Spelm. Life of Alfred, p. 66. Drake, Eboracum. Append, p. civ.
[17] Speed's History.
[18] Mons. Mallet, cap. 12.
[19] Wilkins, Concil. I. p. 204. Drake, Ebor. p. 316. Append, p. civ.
cv.
[20] Menage, Orig. v. Gourmand.
[21] Lord Lyttelton, Hist. of H. II. vol. iii. p. 49.
[22] Harrison, Descript. of Britain, p. 165, 166.
[23] Stow, p. 102. 128.
[24] Lord Lyttelton observes, that the Normans were delicate in their
food, but without excess. Life of Hen. II. vol. III. p. 47.
[25] Dugd. Bar. I. p. 109. Henry II. served to his son. Lord
Lyttelton, IV. p. 298.
[26] Godwin de Prasul. p. 695, renders _Carver_ by _Dapiser_, but
this I cannot approve. See Thoroton. p. 23. 28. Dugd. Bar. I. p. 441.
620. 109. Lib. Nig. p. 342. Kennet, Par. Ant. p. 119. And, to name no
more, Spelm. in voce. The _Carver_ was an officer inferior to the
_Dapiser_, or _Steward_, and even under his control. Vide Lel.
Collect. VI. p. 2. And yet I find Sir Walter Manny when young was
carver to Philippa queen of king Edward III. Barnes Hist. of E. III.
p. 111. The _Steward_ had the name of _Dapiser_, I apprehend, from
serving up the first dish. V. supra.
[27] Sim. Dunelm. col. 227. Hoveden, p. 469. Malms. de Pont. p. 286.
[28] Lib. Nig. Scaccarii, p. 347.
[29] Fleta, II. cap. 75.
[30] Du Fresne, v. Magister.
[31] Du Fresne, ibid.
[32] Du Fresne, v. Coquus. The curious may compare this List with Lib.
Nig. p. 347.
[33] In Somner, Ant. Cant. Append. p. 36. they are under the
_Magister Coquina_, whose office it was to purvey; and there again
the chief cooks are proveditors; different usages might prevail at
different times and places. But what is remarkable, the
_Coquinarius_, or Kitchener, which seems to answer to _Magister
Coquina_, is placed before the Cellarer in Tanner's Notitia, p. xxx.
but this may be accidental.
[34] Du Fresne, v. Coquus.
[35] Somner, Append. p. 36.
[36] Somner, Ant. Cant. Append. p. 36.
[37] Somner, p. 41.
[38] Somner, p. 36, 37, 39, sapius.
[39] Somner, l. c.
[40] M. Paris, p4. 69.
[41] Dugd. Bar. I. p. 45. Stow, p. 184. M. Paris, p. 377. 517. M.
Westm. p. 364.
[42] Lel. Collectan. VI. p. 7. seq.
[43] Ibid. p. 9. 13.
[44] Compare Leland, p. 3. with Godwin de Prasul. p. 695. and so
Junius in Etymol. v. Sewer.
[45] Leland, p. 8, 9. There are now _two yeomen of the mouth_ in the
king's household.
[46] That of George Neville, archbishop of York, 6 Edw. IV. and that
of William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, A.D. 1504. These were
both of them inthronization feasts. Leland, Collectan. VI. p. 2 and
16 of Appendix. They were wont _minuere sanguinem_ after these superb
entertainments, p. 32.
[47] Hor. II. Od. xiv. 28. where see Mons. Dacier.
[48] Sixty-two were employed by archbishop Neville. And the hire of
cooks at archbishop Warham's feast came to 23 l. 6 s. 8 d.
[49] Strype, Life of Cranmer, p. 451, or Lel. Coll. ut supra, p. 38.
Sumptuary laws in regard to eating were not unknown in ancient Rome.
Erasm. Colloq. p. 81. ed. Schrev. nor here formerly, see Lel. Coll.
VI. p. 36. for 5 Ed. II.
[50] I presume it may be the same Roll which Mr. Hearne mentions in
his Lib. Nig. Scaccarii, I. p. 346. See also three different letters
of his to the earl of Oxford, in the Brit. Mus. in the second of
which he stiles the Roll _a piece of antiquity, and a very great
rarity indeed_. Harl. MSS. No. 7523.
[51] See the Proem.
[52] This lord was grandson of Edward duke of Bucks, beheaded A. 1521,
whose son Henry was restored in blood; and this Edward, the grandson,
born about 1571, might be 14 or 15 years old when he presented the
Roll to the Queen.
[53] Mr. Topham's MS. has _socas_ among the fish; and see archbishop
Nevil's Feast, 6 E. IV. to be mentioned below.
[54] Of which see an account below.
[55] See Northumb. Book, p. 107, and Notes.
[56] As to carps, they were unknown in England t. R. II. Fulier,
Worth. in Sussex, p. 98. 113. Stow, Hist. 1038.
[57] The Italians still call the hop _cattiva erba_. There was a
petition against them t. H. VI. Fuller, Worth. p. 317, &c. Evelyn,
Sylva, p. 201. 469. ed. Hunter.
[58] Lister, Praf. ad Apicium, p. xi.
[59] So we have _lozengs of golde_. Lel. Collect. IV. p. 227. and a
wild boar's head _gylt_, p. 294. A peacock with _gylt neb_. VI. p. 6.
_Leche Lambart gylt_, ibid.
[60] No. 68. 20. 58. See my friend Dr. Percy on the Northumberland-
Book, p. 415. and MS Ed. 34.
[61] No. 47. 51. 84.
[62] No. 93. 132. MS Ed. 37.
[63] Perhaps Turmerick. See ad loc.
[64] Ter. Andr. I. 1. where Donatus and Mad. Dacier explain it of
Cooking. Mr. Hearne, in describing our Roll, see above, p. xi, by an
unaccountable mistake, read _Fary_ instead of _Cury_, the plain
reading of the MS.
[65] Junii Etym. v. Diet.
[66] Reginaldus Phisicus. M. Paris, p. 410. 412. 573. 764. Et in Vit.
p. 94. 103. Chaucer's _Medicus_ is a doctor of phisick, p.4. V. Junii
Etym. voce Physician. For later times, v. J. Rossus, p. 93.
[67] That of Donatus is modest 'Culina medicina famulacrix est.'
[68] Lel. Collect. IV. p. 183. 'Diod. Siculus refert primos Agypti
Reges victum quotidianum omnino sumpsisse ex medicorum prascripto.'
Lister ad Apic. p. ix.
[69] See also Lylie's Euphues, p. 282. Cavendish, Life of Wolsey,
p. 151, where we have _callis_, male; Cole's and Lyttleton's Dict. and
Junii Etymolog. v. Collice.
[70] See however, No. 191, and Editor's MS II. 7.
[71] Vide the proeme.
[72] See above.
[73] Univ. Hist. XV. p. 352. 'Asopus pater linguas avium humana
vocales lingua canavit; filius margaritas.' Lister ad Apicium, p. vii.
[74] Jul. Capitolinus, c. 5.
[75] Athenaus, lib. xii. c. 7. Something of the same kind is related
of Heliogabalus, Lister Praf. ad Apic. p. vii.
[76] To omit the paps of a pregnant sow, Hor. I. Ep. xv. 40. where
see Mons. Dacier; Dr. Fuller relates, that the tongue of carps were
accounted by the ancient Roman palate-men most delicious meat. Worth.
in Sussex. See other instances of extravagant Roman luxury in
Lister's Praf. to Apicius, p. vii.
[77] See, however, No. 33, 34, 35, 146.
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