The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India Volume IV of IV

R >> R.V. Russell >> The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India Volume IV of IV

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19. Beliefs about twins

Twins, Mr. Marten states, are not usually considered to be
inauspicious. [65] "It is held that if they are of the same sex they
will survive, and if they are of a different sex one of them will
die. Boy twins are called Rama and Lachhman, a boy and a girl Mahadeo
and Parvati, and two girls Ganga and Jamuni or Sita and Konda. They
should always be kept separate so as to break the essential connection
which exists between them and may cause any misfortune which happens
to the one to extend to the other. Thus the mother always sleeps
between them in bed and never carries both of them nor suckles both
at the same time. Again, among some castes in Chhattisgarh, when the
twins are of different sex, they are considered to be _pap_ (sinful)
and are called Papi and Papin, an allusion to the horror of a brother
and sister sharing the same bed (the mother's womb)." Hindus think
that if two people comb their hair with the same comb they will lose
their affection for each other. Hence the hair of twins is combed with
the same comb to weaken the tie which exists between them, and may
cause the illness or death of either to follow on that of the other.

20. Disposal of the dead

The dead are usually burnt with the head to the north. Children whose
ears have not been bored and adults who die of smallpox or leprosy are
buried, and members of poor families who cannot afford firewood. If a
person has died by hanging or drowning or from the bite of a snake,
his body is burnt without any rites, but in order that his soul
may be saved, the _hom_ sacrifice is performed subsequently to the
cremation. Those who live near the Nerbudda and Mahanadi sometimes
throw the bodies of the dead into these rivers and think that this will
make them go to heaven. The following account of a funeral ceremony
among the middle and higher castes in Saugor is mainly furnished
by Major W. D. Sutherland, I.M.S., with some additions from Mandla,
and from material furnished by the Rev. E. M. Gordon: [66] "When a
man is near his end, gifts to Brahmans are made by him, or by his son
on his behalf. These, if he is a rich man, consist of five cows with
their calves, marked on the forehead and hoofs with turmeric, and
with garlands of flowers round their necks. Ordinary people give the
price of one calf, which is fictitiously taken at Rs. 3-4, Rs. 1-4,
ten annas or five annas according to their means. By holding on to
the tail of this calf the dead man will be able to swim across the
dreadful river Vaitarni, the Hindu Styx. This calf is called Bachra
Sankal or 'the chain-calf,' as it furnishes a chain across the river,
and it may be given three times, once before the death and twice
afterwards. When near his end the dying man is taken down from his
cot and laid on a woollen blanket spread on the ground, perhaps with
the idea that he should at death be in contact with the earth and not
suspended in mid-air as a man on a cot is held to be. In his mouth
are placed a piece of gold, some leaves of the _tulsi_ or basil plant,
or Ganges water, or rice cooked in Jagannath's temple. The dying man
keeps on repeating 'Ram, Ram, Sitaram.'"

21. Funeral rites

As soon as death occurs the corpse is bathed, clothed and smeared
with a mixture of powdered sandalwood, camphor and spices. A bier is
constructed of planks, or if this cannot be afforded the man's cot
is turned upside down and the body is carried out for burial on it
in this fashion, with the legs of the cot pointing upwards. Straw
is laid on the bier, and the corpse, covered with fine white cloth,
is tied securely on to it, the hands being crossed on the breast, with
the thumbs and great toes tied together. When a married woman dies she
is covered with a red cloth which reaches only to the neck, and her
face is left open to the view of everybody, whether she went abroad
unveiled in her life or not. It is considered a highly auspicious
thing for a woman to die in the lifetime of her husband and children,
and the corpse is sometimes dressed like a bride and ornaments put on
it. The corpse of a widow or girl is wrapped in a white cloth with
the head covered. At the head of the funeral procession walks the
son of the deceased, or other chief mourner, and in his hand he takes
smouldering cowdung cakes in an earthen pot, from which the pyre will
be kindled. This fire is brought from the hearth of the house by the
barber, and he sometimes also carries it to the pyre. On the way the
mourners change places so that each may assist in bearing the bier,
and once they set the bier on the ground and leave two pice and some
grain where it lay, before taking it up again. After the funeral each
person who has helped to carry it takes up a clod of earth and with it
touches successively the place on his shoulder where the bier rested,
his waist and his knee, afterwards dropping the clod on the ground. It
is believed that by so doing he removes from his shoulder the weight
of the corpse, which would otherwise press on it for some time.

22. Burning the dead

At the cremation-ground the corpse is taken from the bier and placed on
the pyre. The cloth which covered it and that on which it lay are given
to a sweeper, who is always present to receive this perquisite. To the
corpse's mouth, eyes, ears, nostrils and throat is applied a mixture
of barley-flour, butter, sesamum seeds and powdered sandalwood. Logs
of wood and cowdung cakes are then piled on the body and the pyre is
fired by the son, who first holds a burning stick to the mouth of the
corpse as if to inform it that he is about to apply the fire. The pyre
of a man is fired at the head and of a woman at the foot. Rich people
burn the corpse with sandalwood, and others have a little of this,
and incense and sweet-smelling gum. Nowadays if the rain comes on
and the pyre will not burn they use kerosine oil. When the body is
half-consumed the son takes up a piece of wood and with it strikes
the skull seven times, to break it and give exit to the soul. This,
however, is not always done. The son then takes up on his right
shoulder an earthen pot full of water, at the bottom of which is a
small hole. He walks round the pyre three times in the direction of
the sun's course and stands facing to the south, and dashes the pot
on the ground, crying out in his grief, 'Oh, my father.' While this
is going on _mantras_ or sacred verses are recited by the officiating
Brahman. When the corpse is partly consumed each member of the assembly
throws the _Panch lakariya_ (five pieces of wood or sprigs of basil)
on to the pyre, making obeisance to the deceased and saying, '_Swarg ko
jao_,' or 'Ascend to heaven.' Or they may say, 'Go, become incarnate
in some human being.' They stay by the corpse for 1 1/4 _pahars_
or watches or some four hours, until either the skull is broken by
the chief mourner or breaks of itself with a crack. Then they bathe
and come home and after some hours again return to the corpse, to
see that it is properly burnt. If the pyre should go out and a dog
or other animal should get hold of the corpse when it is half-burnt,
all the relatives are put out of caste, and have to give a feast to
all the caste, costing for a rich family about Rs. 50 and for a poor
one Rs. 10 to Rs. 15. Then they return home and chew _nim_ leaves,
which are bitter and purifying, and spit them out of their mouth,
thus severing their connection with the corpse. When the mourners
have left the deceased's house the women of the family bathe, the
bangles of the widow are broken, the vermilion on the parting of her
hair and the glass ornament (_tikli_) on her forehead are removed,
and she is clad in white clothing of coarse texture to show that
henceforth she is only a widow.

On the third day the mourners go again and collect the ashes and throw
them into the nearest river. The bones are placed in a silken bag or
an earthen pot or a leaf basket, and taken to the Ganges or Nerbudda
within ten days if possible, or otherwise after a longer interval,
being buried meantime. Some milk, salt and calfs urine are sprinkled
over the place where the corpse was burnt. These will cool the place,
and the soul of the dead will similarly be cooled, and a cow will
probably come and lick up the salt, and this will sanctify the place
and also the soul. When the bones are to be taken to a sacred river
they are tied up in a little piece of cloth and carried at the end of
a stick by the chief mourner, who is usually accompanied by several
caste-fellows. At night during the journey this stick is planted in
the ground, so that the bones may not touch the earth.

23. Burial

Graves are always dug from north to south. Some people say that heaven
is to the north, being situated in the Himalayas, and others that
In the Satyug or Golden Age the sun rose to the north. The digging
of the grave only commences on the arrival of the funeral party, so
there is of necessity a delay of several hours at the site, and all
who attend a funeral are supposed to help in digging. It is considered
to be meritorious to assist at a burial, and there is a saying that a
man who has himself conducted a hundred funerals will become a Raja in
his next birth. When the grave has been filled in and a mound raised
to mark the spot, each person present makes five small balls of earth
and places them in a heap at the head of the grave. This custom is also
known as _Panch lakariya_, and must therefore be an imitation of the
placing of the five sticks on the pyre; its original meaning in the
latter case may have been that the mourners should assist the family
by bringing a contribution of wood to the pyre. As adopted in burial
it seems to have no special significance, but somewhat resembles the
European custom of the mourners throwing a little dust into the grave.

24. Return of the soul

On the third day the _pindas_ or sacrificial cakes are offered and
this goes on till the tenth day. These cakes are not eaten by the
priest or Maha-Brahman, but are thrown into a river. On the evening
of the third day the son goes, accompanied by a Brahman and a barber,
and carrying a key to avert evil, to a pipal [67] tree, on whose
branches he hangs two earthen pots: one containing water, which
trickles out through a hole in the bottom, and the other a lamp. On
each succeeding night the son replenishes the contents of these pots,
which are intended to refresh the spirit of the deceased and to light
it on its way to the lower world. In some localities on the evening
of the third day the ashes of the cooking-place are sifted, and laid
out on a tray at night on the spot where the deceased died, or near
the cooking-place. In the morning the layer of ashes is inspected,
and if what appears to be a hand- or footprint is seen, it is held
that the spirit of the deceased has visited the house. Some people
look for handprints, some for footprints, and some for both, and the
Nais look for the print of a cow's hoof, which when seen is held to
prove that the deceased in consideration of his singular merits has
been reborn a cow. If a woman has died in child-birth, or after the
birth of a child and before the performance of the sixth-day ceremony
of purification, her hands are tied with a cotton thread when she is
buried, in order that her spirit may be unable to rise and trouble
the living. It is believed that the souls of such women become evil
spirits or _Churels_. Thorns are also placed over her grave for the
same purpose.

25. Mourning

During the days of mourning the chief mourner sits apart and does
no work. The others do their work but do not touch any one else,
as they are impure. They leave their hair unkempt, do not worship
the gods nor sleep on cots, and abjure betel, milk, butter, curds,
meat, the wearing of shoes, new clothes and other luxuries. In these
days the friends of the family come and comfort the mourners with
conversation on the shortness and uncertainty of human life and
kindred topics. During the period of mourning when the family go
to bathe they march one behind the other in Indian file. And on the
last day all the people of the village accompany them, the men first
and after they have returned the women, all marching one behind the
other. They also come back in this manner from the actual funeral,
and the idea is perhaps to prevent the dead man's spirit from following
them. He would probably feel impelled to adopt the same formation and
fall in behind the last of the line, and then some means is devised,
such as spreading thorns in the path, for leaving him behind.

26. Shaving, and presents to Brahmans

On the ninth, tenth or eleventh day the males of the family have the
front of the head from the crown, and the beard and moustaches, shaved
in token of mourning. The Maha-Brahman who receives the gifts for the
dead is shaved with them. This must be done for an elder relation,
but a man need not be shaved on the death of his wife, sister or
children. The day is the end of mourning and is called Gauri Ganesh,
Gauri being Parvati or the wife of Siva, and Ganesh the god of good
fortune. On the occasion the family give to the Maha-Brahman [68]
a new cot and bedding with a cloth, an umbrella to shield the spirit
from the sun's rays, a copper vessel full of water to quench its
thirst, a brass lamp to guide it on its journey, and if the family
is well-to-do a horse and a cow, All these things are meant to be for
the use of the dead man in the other world. It is also the Brahman's
business to eat a quantity of cooked food, which will form the dead
man's food. It is of great spiritual importance to the dead man's
soul that the Brahman should finish the dish set before him, and if
he does not do so the soul will fare badly. He takes advantage of
this by stopping in the middle of the meal, saying that he has eaten
all he is capable of and cannot go on, so that the relations have
to give him large presents to induce him to finish the food. These
Maha-Brahmans are utterly despised and looked down on by all other
Brahmans and by the community generally, and are sometimes made to
live outside the village. The regular priest, the Malai or Purohit,
can accept no gifts from the time of the death to the end of the period
of mourning. Afterwards he also receives presents in money according
to the means of his clients, which it is supposed will benefit the
dead man's soul in the next world; but no disgrace attaches to the
acceptance of these.

27. End of mourning

When the mourning is complete on the Gauri-Ganesh day all the relatives
take their food at the chief mourner's house, and afterwards the
_panchayat_ invest him with a new turban provided by a relative. On
the next bazar day the members of the _panchayat_ take him to the
bazar and tell him to take up his regular occupation and earn his
livelihood. Thereafter all his relatives and friends invite him to
take food at their houses, probably to mark his accession to the
position of head of the family.

28. Anniversaries of the dead

Three months, six months and twelve months after the death presents
are made to a Brahman, consisting of Sidha, or butter, wheat and rice
for a day's food. The anniversaries of the dead are celebrated during
Pitripaksh or the dark fortnight of Kunwar (September-October). If a
man died on the third day of any fortnight in the year, his anniversary
is celebrated on the third day of this fortnight and so on. On that
day it is supposed that his spirit will visit his earthly house where
his relatives reside. But the souls of women all return to their homes
on the ninth day of the fortnight, and on the thirteenth day come the
souls of all those who have met with a violent death, as by a fall,
or have been killed by wild animals or snakes. The spirits of such
persons are supposed, on account of their untimely end, to entertain
a special grudge against the living.

29. Beliefs in the hereafter

As regards the belief in the hereafter Mr. Gordon writes: [69] "That
they have the idea of hell as a place of punishment may be gathered
from the belief that when salt is spilt the one who does this will
in Patal or the infernal region have to gather up each grain of salt
with his eyelids. Salt is for this reason handed round with great
care, and it is considered unlucky to receive it in the palm of the
hand; it is therefore invariably taken in a cloth or vessel. There
is a belief that the spirit of the deceased hovers round familiar
scenes and places, and on this account, whenever possible, a house
in which any one has died is destroyed or deserted. After the spirit
has wandered round restlessly for a certain time it is said that it
will again become incarnate and take the form either of man or of
one of the lower animals." In Mandla they think that the soul after
death is arraigned and judged before Yama, and is then chained to
a flaming pillar for a longer or shorter period according to its
sins. The gifts made to Brahmans for the dead somewhat shorten the
period. After that time it is born again with a good or bad body and
human or animal according to its deserts.

30. Religion. Village gods

The caste worship the principal Hindu deities. Either Bhagwan or
Parmeshwar is usually referred to as the supreme deity, as we speak
of God. Bhagwan appears to be Vishnu or the Sun, and Parmeshwar is
Siva or Mahadeo. There are few temples to Vishnu in villages, but
none are required as the sun is daily visible. Sunday or Raviwar
is the day sacred to him, and some people fast in his honour on
Sundays, eating only one meal without salt. A man salutes the sun
after he gets up by joining his hands and looking towards it, again
when he has washed his face, and a third time when he has bathed,
by throwing a little water in the sun's direction. He must not spit
in front of the sun nor perform the lower functions of the body in
its sight. Others say that the sun and moon are the eyes of God, and
the light of the sun is the effulgence of God, because by its light
and heat all moving and immobile creatures sustain their life and
all corn and other products of the earth grow. In his incarnations
of Rama and Krishna there are temples to Vishnu in large villages
and towns. Khermata, the mother of the village, is the local form of
Devi or the earth-goddess. She has a small hut and an image of Devi,
either black or red. She is worshipped by a priest called Panda, who
may be of any caste except the impure castes. The earth is worshipped
in various ways. A man taking medicine for the first time in an
illness sprinkles a few drops on the earth in its honour. Similarly
for the first three or four times that a cow is milked after the
birth of a calf the stream is allowed to fall on the ground. A man
who is travelling offers a little food to the earth before eating
himself. Devi is sometimes considered to be one of seven sisters, but
of the others only two are known, Marhai Devi, the goddess of cholera,
and Sitala Devi, the goddess of smallpox. When an epidemic of cholera
breaks out the Panda performs the following ceremony to avert it. He
takes a kid and a small pig or chicken, and some cloth, cakes, glass
bangles, vermilion, an earthen lamp, and some country liquor, which is
sprinkled all along the way from where he starts to where he stops. He
proceeds in this manner to the boundary of the village at a place where
there are cross-roads, and leaves all the things there. Sometimes
the animals are sacrificed and eaten. While the Panda is doing this
every one collects the sweepings of his house in a winnowing-fan and
throws them outside the village boundary, at the same time ringing a
bell continuously. The Panda must perform his ceremony at night and,
if possible, on the day of the new moon. He is accompanied by a few
other low-caste persons called Gunias. A Gunia is one who can be
possessed by a spirit in the temple of Khermata. When possessed he
shakes his head up and down violently and foams at the mouth, and
sometimes strikes his head on the ground. Another favourite godling
is Hardaul, who was the brother of Jujhar Singh, Raja of Orchha,
and was suspected by Jujhar Singh of loving the latter's wife,
and poisoned in consequence by his orders. Hardaul has a platform
and sometimes a hut with an image of a man on horseback carrying a
spear in his hand. His shrine is outside the village, and two days
before a marriage the women of the family visit his shrine and cook
and eat their food there and invite him to the wedding. Clay horses
are offered to him, and he is supposed to be able to keep off rain
and storms during the ceremony. Hardaul is perhaps the deified Rajput
horseman. Hanuman or Mahabir is represented by an image of a monkey
coloured with vermilion, with a club in his hand and a slain man
beneath his feet. He is principally worshipped on Saturdays so that he
may counteract the evil influences exercised by the planet Saturn on
that day. His image is painted with oil mixed with vermilion and has
a wreath of flowers of the cotton tree; and _gugal_ or incense made of
resin, sandalwood and other ingredients is burnt before him. He is the
deified ape, and is the god of strength and swiftness, owing to the
exploits performed by him during Rama's invasion of Ceylon. Dulha Deo
is another godling whose shrine is in every village. He was a young
bridegroom who was carried off by a tiger on his way to his wedding,
or, according to another account, was turned into a stone pillar by
a flash of lightning. Before the starting of a wedding procession the
members go to Dulha Deo and offer a pair of shoes and a miniature post
and marriage-crown. On their return they offer a cocoanut. Dulha Deo
has a stone and platform to the east of the village, or occasionally
an image of a man on horseback like Hardaul. Mirohia is the god
of the field boundary. There is no sign of him, but every tenant,
when he begins sowing and cutting the crops, offers a little curds
and rice and a cocoanut and lays them on the boundary of the field,
saying the name of Mirohia Deo. It is believed among agriculturists
that if this godling is neglected he will flatten the corn by a wind,
or cause the cart to break on its way to the threshing-floor.

31. Sowing the _Jawaras_ or Gardens of Adonis

The sowing of the Jawaras, corresponding to the gardens of Adonis,
takes place during the first nine days of the months of Kunwar
and Chait (September and March). The former is a nine days' fast
preceding the Dasahra festival, and it is supposed that the goddess
Devi was during this time employed In fighting the buffalo-demon
(Bhainsasur), whom she slew on the tenth day. The latter is a nine
days' fast at the new year, preceding the triumphant entry of Rama
into Ajodhia on the tenth day on his return from Ceylon. The first
period comes before the sowing of the spring crop of wheat and other
grains, and the second is at the commencement of the harvest of the
same crop. In some localities the Jawaras are also grown a third time
in the rains, probably as a preparation for the juari sowings, [70]
as juari is planted in the baskets or 'gardens' at this time. On the
first day a small room is cleared and whitewashed, and is known as the
_diwala_ or temple. Some earth is brought from the fields and mixed
with manure in a basket, and a male member of the family sows wheat
in it, bathing before he does so. The basket is kept in the _diwala_
and the same man attends on it throughout the nine days, fasting all
day and eating only milk and fruit at night. A similar nine days' fast
was observed by the Eleusinians before the sacramental eating of corn
and the worship of the Corn Goddess, which constituted the Eleusinian
mysteries. [71] During the period of nine days, called the Naoratra,
the plants are watered, and long stalks spring up. On the eighth day
the _hom_ or fire offering is performed, and the Gunias or devotees are
possessed by Devi. On the evening of the ninth day the women, putting
on their best clothes, walk out of the houses with the pots of grain
on their heads, singing songs in praise of Devi. The men accompany
them beating drums and cymbals. The devotees pierce their cheeks with
long iron needles and walk in the procession. High-caste women, who
cannot go themselves, hire the barber's or waterman's wife to go for
them. The pots are taken to a tank and thrown in, the stalks of grain
being kept and distributed as a mark of amity. The wheat which is sown
in Kunwar gives a forecast of the spring crops. A plant is pulled out,
and the return of the crop will be the same number of times the seed as
it has roots. The woman who gets to the tank first counts the number
of plants in her pot, and this gives the price of wheat in rupees
per _mani_. [72] Sometimes marks of red rust appear on the plants,
and this shows that the crop will suffer from rust. The ceremony
performed in Chait is said to be a sort of harvest thanksgiving. On
the ninth day of the autumn ceremony another celebration called
'Jhinjhia' or 'Norta' takes place in large villages. A number of
young unmarried girls take earthen pots and, making holes in them and
placing lamps inside, carry them on their heads through the village,
singing and dancing. They receive presents from the villagers, with
which they hold a feast. At this a small platform is erected and two
earthen dolls, male and female, are placed on it; rice and flowers
are offered to them and their marriage is celebrated.