The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India Volume IV of IV

R >> R.V. Russell >> The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India Volume IV of IV

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4. Subdivisions of the clans

Many of the great clans are now split up into a number of branches. The
most important of these were according to locality, the different
_sachae_ or branches being groups settled in separate areas. Thus
the Chalukya or Solankhi had sixteen branches, of which the Baghels
of Rewah or Baghelkhand were the most important. The Panwars had
thirty-five branches, of which the Mori and the Dhunda, now perhaps
the Dhundele of Saugor, are the best known. The Gahlot had twenty-four
branches, of which one, the Sesodia, became so important that it has
given its name to the whole clan. The Chamar-Gaur section of the Gaur
clan now claim a higher rank than the other Gaurs, though the name
would apparently indicate the appearance of a Chamar in their family
tree; while the Tilokchandi Bais form an aristocratic section of the
Bais clan, named after a well-known king, Tilokchand, who reigned in
upper India about the twelfth century and is presumably claimed by
them as an ancestor. Besides this the Rajputs have _gotras_, named
after eponymous saints exactly like the Brahman _gotras_, and probably
adopted in imitation of the Brahmans. Since, theoretically, marriage
is prohibited in the whole clan, the _gotra_ divisions would appear
to be useless, but Sir H. Risley states that persons of the same clan
but with different _gotras_ have begun to intermarry. Similarly it
would appear that the different branches of the great clans mentioned
above must intermarry in some cases; while in the Central Provinces,
as already stated, several clans have become regular castes and form
endogamous and not exogamous groups. In northern India, however,
Mr. Crooke's accounts of the different clans indicate that marriage
within the clan is as a rule not permitted. The clans themselves
and their branches have different degrees of rank for purposes of
marriage, according to the purity of their descent, while in each clan
or subclan there is an inferior section formed of the descendants of
remarried widows, or even the offspring of women of another caste,
who have probably in the course of generations not infrequently got
back into their father's clan. Thus many groups of varying status
arise, and one of the principal rules of a Rajput's life was that he
must marry his daughter, sometimes into a clan of equal, or sometimes
into one of higher rank than his own. Hence arose great difficulty
in arranging the marriages of girls and sometimes the payment of a
price to the bridegroom; while in order to retain the favour of the
Bhats and avoid their sarcasm, lavish expenditure had to be incurred
by the bride's father on presents to these rapacious mendicants. [469]
Thus a daughter became in a Rajput's eyes a long step on the road to
ruin, and female infanticide was extensively practised. This crime has
never been at all common in the Central Provinces, where the rule of
marrying a daughter into an equal or higher clan has not been enforced
with the same strictness as in northern India. But occasional instances
formerly occurred in which the child's neck was placed under one leg
of its mother's cot, or it was poisoned with opium or by placing the
juice of the _akra_ or swallow-wort plant on the mother's nipple.

5. Marriage customs

Properly the proposal for a Rajput marriage should emanate from the
bride's side, and the customary method of making it was to send a
cocoanut to the bridegroom. 'The cocoanut came,' was the phrase used
to intimate that a proposal of marriage had been made. [470] It is
possible that the bride's initiative was a relic of the Swayamwara or
maiden's choice, when a king's daughter placed a garland on the neck
of the youth she preferred among the competitors in a tournament,
and among some Rajputs the Jayamala or garland of victory is still
hung round the bridegroom's neck in memory of this custom; but it may
also have been due to the fact that the bride had to pay the dowry. One
tenth of this was paid as earnest when the match had been arranged, and
the boy's party could not then recede from it. At the entrance of the
marriage-shed was hung the _toran_, a triangle of three wooden bars,
having the apex crowned with the effigy of a peacock. The bridegroom
on horseback, lance in hand, proceeded to break the _toran_, which was
defended by the damsels of the bride. They assailed him with missiles
of various kinds, and especially with red powder made from the flowers
of the _palas_ [471] tree, at the same time singing songs full of
immoral allusions. At length the _toran_ was broken amid the shouts
of the retainers, and the fair defenders retired. If the bridegroom
could not attend in person his sword was sent to represent him,
and was carried round the marriage-post, with the bride, this being
considered a proper and valid marriage. At the rite of _hatleva_ or
joining the hands of the couple it was customary that any request made
by the bridegroom to the bride's father should meet with compliance,
and this usage has led to many fatal results in history. Another
now obsolete custom was that the bride's father should present an
elephant to his son-in-law as part of the dowry, but when a man could
not afford a real elephant a small golden image of the animal might be
substituted. In noble families the bride was often accompanied to her
husband's house by a number of maidens belonging to the servant and
menial castes. These were called Devadhari or lamp-bearers, and became
inmates of the harem, their offspring being _golas_ or slaves. In
time of famine many of the poor had also perforce to sell themselves
as slaves in order to obtain subsistence, and a chiefs household would
thus contain a large number of them. They were still adorned in Mewar,
Colonel Tod states, like the Saxon slaves of old, with a silver ring
round the left ankle instead of the neck. They were well treated,
and were often among the best of the military retainers; they took
rank among themselves according to the quality of the mothers, and
often held confidential places about the ruler's person. A former
chief of Deogarh would appear at court with three hundred _golas_ or
slaves on horseback in his train, men whose lives were his own. [472]
These special customs have now generally been abandoned by the Rajputs
of the Central Provinces, and their weddings conform to the usual
Hindu type as described in the article on Kurmi. The remarriage of
widows is now recognised in the southern Districts, though not in the
north; but even here widows frequently do marry and their offspring
are received into the caste, though with a lower status than those
who do not permit this custom. Among the Baghels a full Rajput will
allow a relative born of a remarried widow to cook his food for him,
but not to add the salt nor to eat it with him. Those who permit
the second marriage of widows also allow a divorced woman to remain
in the caste and to marry again. But among proper Rajputs, as with
Brahmans, a wife who goes wrong is simply put away and expelled from
the society. Polygamy is permitted and was formerly common among
the chiefs. Each wife was maintained in a separate suite of rooms,
and the chief dined and spent the evening alternately with each of
them in her own quarters. The lady with her attendants would prepare
dinner for him and wait upon him while he ate it, waving the punkah or
fan behind him and entertaining him with her remarks, which, according
to report, frequently constituted a pretty severe curtain lecture.

6. Funeral rites

The dead are burnt, except infants, whose bodies are buried. Mourning
is observed for thirteen days for a man, nine days for a woman,
and three days for a child. The _shraddh_ ceremony or offering of
sacrificial cakes to the spirit is performed either during the usual
period in the month of Kunwar (September), or on the anniversary day
of the death. It was formerly held that if a Kshatriya died on the
battlefield it was unnecessary to perform his funeral rites because
his spirit went straight to heaven, and thus the end to which the
ceremonies were directed was already attained without them. It was
also said that the wife of a man dying such a death should not regard
herself as a widow nor undergo the privations imposed on widowhood. But
this did not apply so far as self-immolation was concerned, since the
wives of warriors dying in battle very frequently became _sati_. In the
case of chiefs also it was sometimes the custom, probably for political
reasons, that the heir should not observe mourning; because if he did
so he would be incapable of appearing in an assembly for thirteen days,
or of taking the public action which might be requisite to safeguard
his succession. The body of the late chief would be carried out by the
back door of the house, and as soon as it left his successor would
take his seat on the _gaddi_ or cushion and begin to discharge the
public business of government.

7. Religion

The principal deity of the Rajputs is the goddess Devi or Durga in her
more terrible form as the goddess of war. Their swords were sacred to
her, and at the Dasahra festival they worshipped their swords and other
weapons of war and their horses. The dreadful goddess also protected
the virtue of the Rajput women and caused to be enacted the terrible
holocausts, not infrequent in Rajput history, when some stronghold
was besieged and could hold out no longer. A great furnace was then
kindled in the citadel and into this the women, young and old, threw
themselves, or else died by their husbands' swords, while the men,
drunk with _bhang_ and wearing saffron-coloured robes, sallied out to
sell their lives to the enemy as dearly as possible. It is related
that on one occasion Akbar desired to attempt the virtue of a queen
of the Sesodia clan, and for that purpose caused her to lose herself
in one of the mazes of his palace. The emperor appeared before her
suddenly as she was alone, but the lady, drawing a dagger, threatened
to plunge it into her breast if he did not respect her, and at the same
time the goddess of her house appeared riding on a tiger. The baffled
emperor gave way and retired, and her life and virtue were saved.

The Rajputs also worship the sun, whom many of them look upon as
their first ancestor. They revere the animals and trees sacred to the
Hindus, and some clans show special veneration to a particular tree,
never cutting or breaking the branches or leaves. In this manner the
Bundelas revere the _kadamb_ tree, the Panwars the _nim_ [473] tree,
the Rathors the pipal [474] tree, and so on. This seems to be a relic
of totemistic usage. In former times each clan had also a tribal god,
who was its protector and leader and watched over the destinies of
the clan. Sometimes it accompanied the clan into battle. "Every royal
house has its palladium, which is frequently borne to battle at the
saddle-bow of the prince. Rao Bhima Hara of Kotah lost his life and
protecting deity together. The celebrated Khichi (Chauhan) leader
Jai Singh never took the field without the god before him. 'Victory
to Bujrung' was his signal for the charge so dreaded by the Maratha,
and often has the deity been sprinkled with his blood and that of
the foe." [475] It is said that a Rajput should always kill a snake
if he sees one, because the snake, though a prince among Rajputs,
is an enemy, and he should not let it live. If he does not kill it,
the snake will curse him and bring ill-luck upon him. The same rule
applies, though with less binding force, to a tiger.

8. Food

The Rajputs eat the flesh of clean animals, but not pigs or fowls. They
are, however, fond of the sport of pig-sticking, and many clans, as
the Bundelas and others, will eat the flesh of the wild pig. This
custom was perhaps formerly universal. Some of them eat of male
animals only and not of females, either because they fear that the
latter would render them effeminate or that they consider the sin
to be less. Some only eat animals killed by the method of _jatka_
or severing the head with one stroke of the sword or knife. They
will not eat animals killed in the Muhammadan fashion by cutting
the throat. They abstain from the flesh of the _nilgai_ or blue bull
as being an animal of the cow tribe. Among the Brahmans and Rajputs
food cooked with water must not be placed in bamboo baskets, nor must
anything made of bamboo be brought into the _rasoya_ or cooking-place,
or the _chauka_, the space cleaned and marked out for meals. A special
brush of date-palm fibre is kept solely for sweeping these parts of
the house. At a Rajput banquet it was the custom for the prince to
send a little food from his own plate or from the dish before him to
any guest whom he especially wished to honour, and to receive this was
considered a very high distinction. In Mewar the test of legitimacy in
a prince of the royal house was the permission to eat from the chief's
plate. The grant of this privilege conferred a recognised position,
while its denial excluded the member in question from the right to
the succession. [476] This custom indicates the importance attached
to the taking of food together as a covenant or sacrament.

9. Opium

The Rajputs abstain from alcoholic liquor, though some of the lower
class, as the Bundelas, drink it. In classical times there is no doubt
that they drank freely, but have had to conform to the prohibition
of liquor imposed by the Brahmans on high-caste Hindus. In lieu of
liquor they became much addicted to the noxious drugs, opium and ganja
or Indian hemp, drinking the latter in the form of the intoxicating
liquid known as _bhangs_, which is prepared from its leaves. _Bhang_
was as a rule drunk by the Rajputs before battle, and especially as a
preparation for those last sallies from a besieged fortress in which
the defenders threw away their lives. There is little reason to doubt
that they considered the frenzy and carelessness of death produced by
the liquor as a form of divine possession. Opium has contributed much
to the degeneration of the Rajputs, and their relapse to an idle,
sensuous life when their energies were no longer maintained by the
need of continuous fighting for the protection of their country. The
following account by Forbes of a Rajput's daily life well illustrates
the slothful effeminacy caused by the drug: [477] "In times of peace
and ease the Rajput leads an indolent and monotonous life. It is
usually some time after sunrise before he bestirs himself and begins
to call for his hookah; after smoking he enjoys the luxury of tea
or coffee, and commences his toilet and ablutions, which dispose
of a considerable part of the morning. It is soon breakfast-time,
and after breakfast the hookah is again in requisition, with but
few intervals of conversation until noon. The time has now arrived
for a siesta, which lasts till about three in the afternoon. At
this hour the chief gets up again, washes his hands and face, and
prepares for the great business of the day, the distribution of the
red cup, _kusumba_ or opium. He calls together his friends into the
public hall, or perhaps retires with them to a garden-house. Opium
is produced, which is pounded in a brass vessel and mixed with water;
it is then strained into a dish with a spout, from which it is poured
into the chief's hand. One after the other the guests now come up,
each protesting that _kusumba_ is wholly repugnant to his taste and
very injurious to his health, but after a little pressing first one
and then another touches the chief's hand in two or three places,
muttering the names of Deos (gods), friends or others, and drains the
draught. Each after drinking washes the chief's hand in a dish of
water which a servant offers, and after wiping it dry with his own
scarf makes way for his neighbour. After this refreshment the chief
and his guests sit down in the public hall, and amuse themselves
with chess, draughts or games of chance, or perhaps dancing-girls
are called in to exhibit their monotonous measures, or musicians and
singers, or the never-failing favourites, the Bhats and Charans. At
sunset the torch-bearers appear and supply the chamber with light,
upon which all those who are seated therein rise and make obeisance
towards the chief's cushion. They resume their seats, and playing,
singing, dancing, story-telling go on as before. At about eight the
chief rises to retire to his dinner and his hookah, and the party is
broken up." There is little reason to doubt that the Rajputs ascribed
a divine character to opium and the mental exaltation produced by
it, as suggested in the article on Kalar in reference to the Hindus
generally. Opium was commonly offered at the shrines of deified Rajput
heroes. Colonel Tod states: "_Umul lar khana_, to eat opium together,
is the most inviolable, pledge, and an agreement ratified by this
ceremony is stronger than any adjuration." [478] The account given by
Forbes of the manner in which the drug was distributed by the chief
from his own hand to all his clansmen indicates that the drinking
of it was the renewal of a kind of pledge or covenant between them,
analogous to the custom of pledging one another with wine, and a
substitute for the covenant made by taking food together, which
originated from the sacrificial meal. It has already been seen that
the Rajputs attached the most solemn meaning and virtue to the act
of partaking of the chief's food, and it is legitimate to infer that
they regarded the drinking of a sacred drug like opium from his hand
in the same light. The following account [479] of the drinking of
healths in a Highland clan had, it may be suggested, originally the
same significance as the distribution of opium by the Rajput chief:
"Lord Lovat was wont in the hall before dinner to have a kind of
herald proclaiming his pedigree, which reached almost up to Noah,
and showed each man present to be a cadet of his family, whilst after
dinner he drank to every one of his cousins by name, each of them in
return pledging him--the better sort in French claret, the lower class
in husky (whisky)." Here also the drinking of wine together perhaps
implied the renewal of a pledge of fealty and protection between the
chief and his clansmen, all of whom were held to be of his kin. The
belief in the kinship of the whole clan existed among the Rajputs
exactly as in the Scotch clans. In speaking of the Rathors Colonel
Tod states that they brought into the field fifty thousand men, _Ek
bap ka beta_, the sons of one father, to combat with the emperor of
Delhi; and remarks: "What a sensation does it not excite when we know
that a sentiment of kindred pervades every individual of this immense
affiliated body, who can point out in the great tree the branch of
his origin, of which not one is too remote from the main stem to
forget his pristine connection with it." [480]

The taking of opium and wine together, as already described, thus
appear to be ceremonies of the same character, both symbolising the
renewal of a covenant between kinsmen.

10. Improved training of Rajput chiefs

The temptations to a life of idleness and debauchery to which Rajput
gentlemen were exposed by the cessation of war have happily been
largely met and overcome by the careful education and training which
their sons now receive in the different chiefs' colleges and schools,
and by the fostering of their taste for polo and other games. There is
every reason to hope that a Rajput prince's life will now be much like
that of an English country gentleman, spent largely in public business
and the service of his country, with sport and games as relaxation. Nor
are the Rajputs slow to avail themselves of the opportunities for the
harder calling of arms afforded by the wars of the British Empire,
in which they are usually the first to proffer their single-hearted
and unselfish assistance.

11. Dress

The most distinctive feature of a Rajput's dress was formerly his
turban; the more voluminous and heavy this was, the greater distinction
attached to the bearer. The cloth was wound in many folds above the
head, or cocked over one ear as a special mark of pride. An English
gentleman once remarked to the minister of the Rao of Cutch on the
size and weight of his turban, when the latter replied, 'Oh, this is
nothing, it only weighs fifteen pounds.' [481] A considerable reverence
attached to the turban, probably because it was the covering of the
head, the seat of life, and the exchanging of turbans was the mark of
the closest friendship. On one occasion Shah Jahan, before he came
to the throne of Delhi, changed turbans with the Rana of Mewar as a
mark of amity. Shah Jahan's turban was still preserved at Udaipur,
and seen there by Colonel Tod in 1820. They also wore the beard and
moustaches very long and full, the moustache either drooping far
below the chin, or being twisted out stiffly on each side to impart
an aspect of fierceness. Many Rajputs considered it a disgrace to
have grey beards or moustaches, and these were accustomed to dye them
with a preparation of indigo. Thus dyed, however, after a few days
the beard and moustache assumed a purple tint, and finally faded to a
pale plum colour, far from being either deceptive or ornamental. The
process of dyeing was said to be tedious, and the artist compelled
his patient to sit many hours under the indigo treatment with his
head wrapped up in plantain leaves. [482] During the Muhammadan wars,
however, the Rajputs gave up their custom of wearing beards in order
to be distinguished from Moslems, and now, as a rule, do not retain
them, while most of them have also discarded the long moustaches
and large turbans. In battle, especially when they expected to die,
the Rajputs wore saffron-coloured robes as at a wedding. At the same
time their wives frequently performed _sati_, and the idea was perhaps
that they looked on their deaths as the occasion of a fresh bridal
in the warrior's Valhalla. Women wear skirts and shoulder-cloths,
and in Rajputana they have bangles of ivory or bone instead of the
ordinary glass, sometimes covering the arm from the shoulders to the
wrist. Their other ornaments should be of gold if possible, but the
rule is not strictly observed, and silver and baser metals are worn.

12. Social customs

The Rajputs wear the sacred thread, but many of them have abandoned
the proper _upanayana_ or thread ceremony, and simply invest boys with
it at their marriage. In former times, when a boy became fit to bear
arms, the ceremony of _kharg bandai_, or binding on of the sword, was
performed, and considered to mark his attainment of manhood. The king
himself had his sword thus bound on by the first of his vassals. The
Rajputs take food cooked with water (_katchi_) only from Brahmans, and
that cooked without water (_pakki_) from Banias, and sometimes from
Lodhis and Dhimars. Brahmans will take _pakki_ food from Rajputs,
and Nais and Dhimars _katchi_ food. When a man is ill, however,
he may take food from members of such castes as Kurmi and Lodhi
as a matter of convenience without incurring caste penalties. The
large turbans and long moustaches and beards no longer characterise
their appearance, and the only point which distinguishes a Rajput
is that his name ends with Singh (lion). But this suffix has also
been adopted by others, especially the Sikhs, and by such castes as
the Lodhis and Raj-Gonds who aspire to rank as Rajputs. A Rajput is
usually addressed as Thakur or lord, a title which properly applies
only to a Rajput landholder, but has now come into general use. The
head of a state has the designation of Raja or Rana, and those of the
leading states of Maharaja or Maharana, that is, great king. Maharana,
which appears to be a Gujarati form, is used by the Sesodia family of
Udaipur. The sons of a Raja are called Kunwar or prince. The title Rao
appears to be a Marathi form of Raj or Raja; it is retained by one or
two chiefs, but has now been generally adopted as an honorific suffix
by Maratha Brahmans. Rawat appears to have been originally equivalent
to Rajput, being simply a diminutive of Rajputra, the Sanskrit form
of the latter. It is the name of a clan of Rajputs in the Punjab, and
is used as an honorific designation by Ahirs, Saonrs, Kols and others.

13. Seclusion of women

Women are strictly secluded by the Rajputs, especially in Upper India,
but this practice does not appear to have been customary in ancient
times, and it would be interesting to know whether it has been copied
from the Muhammadans. It is said that a good Rajput in the Central
Provinces must not drive the plough, his wife must not use the _rehnta_
or spinning-wheel, and his household may not have the _kathri_ or
_gudri_, the mattress made of old pieces of cloth or rag sewn one on
top of the other, which is common in the poorer Hindu households.

14. Traditional character of the Rajputs

The Rajputs as depicted by Colonel Tod resembled the knights of the
age of chivalry. Courage, strength and endurance were the virtues most
highly prized. One of the Rajput trials of strength, it is recorded,
was to gallop at full speed under the horizontal branch of a tree and
cling to it while the horse passed on. This feat appears to have been
a common amusement, and it is related in the annals of Mewar that the
chief of Bunera broke his spine in the attempt; and there were few who
came off without bruises and falls, in which consisted the sport. Of
their martial spirit Colonel Tod writes: "The Rajput mother claims her
full share in the glory of her son, who imbibes at the maternal fount
his first rudiments of chivalry; and the importance of this parental
instruction cannot be better illustrated than in the ever-recurring
simile, 'Make thy mother's milk resplendent.' One need not reason
on the intensity of sentiment thus implanted in the infant Rajput,
of whom we may say without metaphor the shield is his cradle and
daggers his playthings, and with whom the first commandment is 'Avenge
thy father's feud.' [483] A Rajput yet loves to talk of the days of
chivalry, when three things alone occupied him, his horse, his lance
and his mistress; for she is but third in his estimation after all,
and to the first two he owed her." [484] And of their desire for fame:
"This sacrifice (of the Johar) accomplished, their sole thought was to
secure a niche in that immortal temple of fame, which the Rajput bard,
as well as the great minstrel of the West peoples 'with youths who
died to be by poets sung.' For this the Rajput's anxiety has in all
ages been so great as often to defeat even the purpose of revenge, his
object being to die gloriously rather than to inflict death; assured
that his name would never perish, but, preserved in immortal rhyme by
the bard, would serve as the incentive to similar deeds." [485] He sums
up their character in the following terms: "High courage, patriotism,
loyalty, honour, hospitality and simplicity are qualities which must
at once be conceded to them; and if we cannot vindicate them from
charges to which human nature in every clime is obnoxious; if we are
compelled to admit the deterioration of moral dignity from continual
inroads of, and their consequent collision with rapacious conquerors;
we must yet admire the quantum of virtue which even oppression and
bad example have failed to banish. The meaner vices of deceit and
falsehood, which the delineators of national character attach to the
Asiatic without distinction, I deny to be universal with the Rajputs,
though some tribes may have been obliged from position to use these
shields of the weak against continuous oppression." [486] The women
prized martial courage no less than the men: they would hear with
equanimity of the death of their sons or husbands in the battlefield,
while they heaped scorn and contumely on those who returned after
defeat. They were constantly ready to sacrifice themselves to the
flames rather than fall into the hands of a conqueror; and the Johar,
the final act of a besieged garrison, when the women threw themselves
into the furnace, while the men sallied forth to die in battle against
the enemy, is recorded again and again in Rajput annals. Three times
was this tragedy enacted at the fall of Chitor, formerly the capital
fortress of the Sesodia clan; and the following vivid account is
given by Colonel Tod of a similar deed at Jaisalmer, when the town
fell to the Muhammadans: [487] "The chiefs were assembled; all were
unanimous to make Jaisalmer resplendent by their deeds and preserve
the honour of the Yadu race. Muhaj thus addressed them: 'You are of
a warlike race and strong are your arms in the cause of your prince;
what heroes excel you who thus tread in the Chhatri's path? For the
maintenance of my honour the sword is in your hands; let Jaisalmer be
illumined by its blows upon the foe.' Having thus inspired the chiefs
and men, Muhaj and Ratan repaired to the palace of their queens. They
told them to take the _sohag_ [488] and prepare to meet in heaven,
while they gave up their lives in defence of their honour and their
faith. Smiling the Rani replied, 'This night we shall prepare, and
by the morning's light we shall be inhabitants of heaven'; and thus
it was with all the chiefs and their wives. The night was passed
together for the last time in preparation for the awful morn. It
came; ablutions and prayers were finished and at the royal gate were
convened children, wives and mothers. They bade a last farewell to
all their kin; the Johar commenced, and twenty-four thousand females,
from infancy to old age, surrendered their lives, some by the sword,
others in the volcano of fire. Blood flowed in torrents, while the
smoke of the pyre ascended to the heavens: not one feared to die,
and every valuable was consumed with them, so that not the worth
of a straw was preserved for the foe. The work done, the brothers
looked upon the spectacle with horror. Life was now a burden and
they prepared to quit it They purified themselves with water, paid
adoration to the divinity, made gifts to the poor, placed a branch
of the _tulsi_ [489] in their casques, the _saligram_ [490] round
their neck; and having cased themselves in armour and put on the
saffron robe, they bound the marriage crown around their heads and
embraced each other for the last time. Thus they awaited the hour
of battle. Three thousand eight hundred warriors, their faces red
with wrath, prepared to die with their chiefs." In this account the
preparation for the Johar as if for a wedding is clearly brought out,
and it seems likely that husbands and wives looked on it as a bridal
preparatory to the resumption of their life together in heaven.