Henry M. Cist - "The Army of the Cumberland"

Mr. Roscoe - "The Butterfly's Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast"

Victor Hugo - "Napoleon the Little"

Mary Huston Gregory - "Checking the Waste"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Unwritten Literature of Hawaii

N >> Nathaniel Bright Emerson >> Unwritten Literature of Hawaii




The choice of a site was a matter of prime importance. A
formidable code enunciated the principles governing the
selection. But--a matter of great solicitude--there were
omens to be heeded, snares and pitfalls devised by the
superstitious mind for its own entanglement. The untimely
sneeze, the ophthalmic eye, the hunched back were omens to be
shunned.

Within historic times, since the abrogation of the tabu
system and the loosening of the old polytheistic ideas, there
has been in the hula a lowering of former standards, in some
respects a degeneration. The old gods, however, were not
entirely dethroned; the people of the hula still continued to
maintain the form of divine service and still appealed to
them for good luck; but the soul of worship had exhaled; the
main study now was to make of the hula a pecuniary success.

In an important sense the old way was in sympathy with the
thought, "Except God be with the workmen, they labor in vain
that build the house." The means for gaining divine favor and
averting the frown of the gods were those practised by all
religionists in the infantile state of the human mind--the
observance of fasts and tabus, the offering of special
prayers and sacrifices. The ceremonial purification of the
site, or of the building if it had been used for profane
purposes, was accomplished by aspersions with sea water mixed
with turmeric or red earth.
[Page 15]
When one considers the tenacious hold which all rites and
ceremonies growing out of what we are accustomed to call
superstitions had on the mind of the primitive Hawaiian, it
puzzles one to account for the entire dropping out from
modern memory of the prayers which were recited during the
erection of a hall for the shelter of an institution so
festive and so popular as the hula, while the prayers and
gloomy ritual of the temple service have survived. The
explanation may be found, perhaps, in the fact that the
priests of the temple held position by the sovereign's
appointment; they formed a hierarchy by themselves, whereas
the position of the _kumu-hula_, who was also a priest, was
open to anyone who fitted himself for it by training and
study and by passing successfully the _ai-lolo_[2] ordeal.
After that he had the right to approach the altar of the hula
god with the prescribed offerings and to present the prayers
and petitions of the company to Laka or Kapo.

[Footnote 2: _Ai-lolo_. See pp. 32, 34, 36.]

In pleasing contrast to the worship of the _heiau_, the
service of the hula was not marred by the presence of
groaning victims and bloody sacrifices. Instead we find the
offerings to have been mostly rustic tokens, things entirely
consistent with light-heartedness, joy, and ecstasy of
devotion, as if to celebrate the fact that heaven had come
down to earth and Pan, with all the nymphs, was dancing.

During the time the halau was building the tabus and rules
that regulated conduct were enforced with the utmost
strictness. The members of the company were required to
maintain the greatest propriety of demeanor, to suppress all
rudeness of speech and manner, to abstain from all carnal
indulgence, to deny themselves specified articles of food,
and above all to avoid contact with a corpse. If anyone, even
by accident, suffered such defilement, before being received
again into fellowship or permitted to enter the halau and
take part in the exercises he must have ceremonial cleansing
(_huikala_). The _kumu_ offered up prayers, sprinkled the
offender with salt water and turmeric, commanded him to bathe
in the ocean, and he was clean. If the breach of discipline
was gross and willful, an act of outrageous violence or the
neglect of tabu, the offender could be restored only after
penitence and confession.

THE KUAHU


In every halau stood the _kuahu_, or altar, as the visible
temporary abode of the deity, whose presence was at once the
inspiration of the performance and the luck-bringer of the
enterprise--a rustic frame embowered in greenery. The
gathering of the green leaves and other sweet finery of
[Page 16] nature for its construction and decoration was a matter of so
great importance that it could not be intrusted to any chance
assemblage of wild youth, who might see fit to take the work
in hand. There were formalities that must be observed, songs
to be chanted, prayers to be recited. It was necessary to
bear in mind that when one deflowered the woods of their
fronds of _ie-ie_ and fern or tore the trailing lengths of
_maile_--albeit in honor of Laka herself--the body of the
goddess was being despoiled, and the despoiling must be done
with all tactful grace and etiquette.

It must not be gathered from this that the occasion was made
solemn and oppressive with weight of ceremony, as when a
temple was erected or as when a tabu chief walked abroad, and
all men lay with their mouths in the dust. On the contrary,
it was a time of joy and decorous exultation, a time when in
prayer-songs and ascriptions of praise the poet ransacked all
nature for figures and allusions to be used in caressing the
deity.

The following adulatory prayer (_kanaenae_) in adoration of
Laka was recited while gathering the woodland decorations for
the altar. It is worthy of preservation for its intrinsic
beauty, for the spirit of trustfulness it breathes. We remark
the petitions it utters for the growth of tree and shrub, as
if Laka had been the alma mater under whose influence all
nature budded and rejoiced.

It would seem as if the physical ecstasy of the dance and the
sensuous joy of all nature's finery had breathed their spirit
into the aspiration and that the beauty of leaf and flower,
all of them familiar forms of the god's
metamorphosis--accessible to their touch and for the
regalement of their senses--had brought such nearness and
dearness, of affection between goddess and worshiper that all
fear was removed.

_He kanaenae no Laka_

A ke kua-hiwi, i ke kua-lono,
Ku ana o Laka i ka mauna;
Noho ana o Laka i ke po'o o ka ohu.
O Laka kumu hula,
5 Nana i a'e ka tvao-kele,[3]
Kahi, kahi i moli'a i ka pua'a,
I ke po'o pua'a,
He pua'a hiwa na Kane.[4]
[Page 17] He kane na Laka,
10 Na ka wahine i oni a kelakela i ka lani:
I kupu ke a'a i ke kumu,
I lau a puka ka mu'o,
Ka liko, ka ao i-luna.
Kupu ka lala, hua ma ka Hikina;
15 Kupu ka laau ona a Maka-li'i,[5]
O Maka-lei,[6] laau kaulana mai ka Po mai.[7]
Mai ka Po mai ka oiaio--
I ho-i'o i-luna, i o'o i-luna.
He luna au e ki'i mai nei ia oe, e Laka,
20 E ho'i ke ko-kua[8] pa-u;
He la uniki[9] e no kaua;
Ha-ike-ike[10] o ke Akua;
Hoike ka mana o ka Wahine,
O Laka, kaikuahine,
25 Wahine a Lono i ka ou-alii.[11]
E Lono, e hu'[12] ia mai ka lani me ka honua.
Nou okoa Kukulu o Kaniki.[13]
Me ke ano-ai[14] i aloha, e!
E ola, e!

[Footnote 3: _Wao-kele_. That portion of the mountain forest
where grew the monarch trees was called _wao-kele_ or
_wao-maukele_.]

[Footnote 4: _Na Kane_. Why was the offering, the black roast
porkling, said to be for Kane, who was not a special patron,
_au-makua_, of the hula? The only answer the author has been
able to obtain from any Hawaiian is that, though Kane was not
a god of the hula, he was a near relative. On reflection, the
author can see a propriety in devoting the reeking flesh of
the swine to god Kane, while to the sylvan deity, Laka,
goddess of the peaceful hula, were devoted the rustic
offerings that were the embodiment of her charms. Her image,
or token--an uncarved block of wood--was set up in a
prominent part of the _kuahu_, and at the close of a
performance the wreaths that had been worn by the actors were
draped about the image. Thus viewed, there is a delicate
propriety and significance in such disposal of the pig.]

[Footnote 5: _Maka-li'i_ (Small eyes). The Pleiades; also the
period of six months, including the rainy season, that began
some time in October or November and was reckoned from the
date when the Pleiades appeared in the East at sunset.
_Maka-li'i_ was also the name of a month, by some reckoned as
the first month of the year.]

[Footnote 6: _Maka-lei_. The name of a famous mythological
tree which had the power of attracting fish. It did not
poison, but only bewitched or fascinated them. There were two
trees bearing this name, one a male, the other a female,
which both grew at a place in Hilo called Pali-uli. One of
these, the female, was, according to tradition, carried from
its root home to the fish ponds in Kailua, Oahu, for the
purpose of attracting fish to the neighboring waters. The
enterprise was eminently successful.]

[Footnote 7: _Po_. Literally night; the period in cosmogony
when darkness and chaos reigned, before the affairs on earth
had become settled under the rule of the gods. Here the word
is used to indicate a period of remote mythologic antiquity.
The use of the word _Po_ in the following verse reminds one
of the French adage, "La nuit porte conseil."]

[Footnote 8: _Kokua_. Another form for _kakua_, to gird on
the _pa-u_. (See _Pa-u_ song, pp. 51-53.)]

[Footnote 9: _Uniki_. A word not given in the dictionary. The
debut of an actor at the hula, after passing the _ai-lolo_
test and graduating from the school of the halau, a critical
event.]

[Footnote 10: _Ha-ike-ike_. Equivalent to _ho-ike-ike_, an
exhibition, to exhibit.]

[Footnote 11: _Ou-alii_. The Hawaiians seem to have lost the
meaning of this word. The author has been at some pains to
work it out somewhat conjecturally.]

[Footnote 12: _E Lono, e hu' ia, mai, etc_. The unelided form
of the word _hu'_ would be _hui_. The final _i_ is dropped
before the similar vowel of _ia_.]

[Footnote 13: _Kukulu o Kahiki_. The pillars of Kahiki. The
ancient Hawaiians supposed the starry heavens to be a solid
dome supported by a wall or vertical
construction--_kukulu_--set up along the horizon. That
section of the wall that stood over against Kahiki they
termed _Kukulu o Kahiki_. Our geographical name Tahiti is of
course from Kahiki, though it does not apply to the same
region. After the close of what has been termed "the period
of intercourse," which, came probably during the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, and during which the ancient Hawaiians
voyaged to and fro between Hawaii and the lands of the South,
geographical ideas became hazy and the term _Kahiki_ came to
be applied to any foreign country.]

[Footnote 14: _Ano-ai_. An old form of salutation, answering
in general to the more modern word aloha, much used at the
present time. _Ano-ai_ seems to have had a shade of meaning
more nearly answering to our word "welcome." This is the
first instance the author has met with of its use in poetry.]

[Page 18]
[Translation]

_A Prayer of Adulation to Laka_

In the forests, on the ridges
Of the mountains stands Laka;
Dwelling in the source of the mists.
Laka, mistress of the hula,
5 Has climbed the wooded haunts of the gods,
Altars hallowed by the sacrificial swine,
The head of the boar, the black boar of Kane.
A partner he with Laka;
Woman, she by strife gained rank in heaven.
10 That the root may grow from the stem,
That the young shoot may put forth and leaf,
Pushing up the fresh enfolded bud,
The scion-thrust bud and fruit toward the East,
Like the tree that bewitches the winter fish,
15 Maka-lei, tree famed from the age of night.
Truth is the counsel of night--
May it fruit and ripen above.
A messenger I bring you, O Laka,
To the girding of pau.
20 An opening festa this for thee and me;
To show the might of the god,
The power of the goddess,
Of Laka, the sister,
To Lono a wife in the heavenly courts.
25 O Lono, join heaven and earth!
Thine alone are the pillars of Kahiki.
Warm greeting, beloved one,
We hail thee!

The cult of god Lono was milder, more humane, than that of
Kane and the other major gods. No human sacrifices were
offered on his altars,--The statement in verse 26 accords
with the general belief of the Hawaiians that Lono dwelt in
foreign parts, _Kukulu o Kahiki_, and that he would some time
come to them from across the waters. When Captain Cook
arrived in his ships, the Hawaiians worshiped him as the god
Lono.

[Illustration: IE-IE (FREYCINETIA ARNOTTI) LEAVES AND FRUIT]

The following song-prayer also is one that was used at the
gathering of the greenery in the mountains and during the
building of the altar in the halau. When recited in the halau
all the pupils took part, and the chorus was a response in
which the whole assembly in the halau were expected to join:

_Pule Kuahu no Laka_

Haki pu o ka nahelehele,
Haki hana maile o ka wao,
[Page 19] Hooulu[15] lei ou, o Laka, e!
O Hiiaka[16] ke kaula nana e hooulu na ma'i,
5 A aeae a ulu[17] a noho i kou kuahu,
Eia ka pule la, he pule ola,
He noi ola nou, e-e!

_Chorus:_
E ola ia makou, aohe hala!


[Translation]

_Altar-Prayer to Laka_

This spoil and rape of the wildwood,
This plucking of wilderness maile--
Collect of garlands, Laka, for you.
Hiiaka, the prophet, heals our diseases.
5 Enter, possess, inspire your altar;
Heed our prayer, 'tis for life;
Our petition to you is for life.

_Chorus:_

Give us life, save from transgression!

[Footnote 15: _Hoo-ulu_. This word has a considerable range of
meaning, well illustrated in this mele. In its simplest form,
_ulu_, it means to grow, to become strong. Joined with the
causative _hoo_, as here, it takes on the spiritual meaning
of causing to prosper, of inspiring. The word "collect," used
in the translation, has been chosen to express the double
sense of gathering the garlands and of devoting them to the
goddess as a religious offering. In the fourth verse this
word, _hooulu_, is used in the sense of to heal. Compare note
_c_.]

[Footnote 16: _Hiiaka_. The youngest sister of Pele, often
spoken of as _Hiiaka-i-ka-poli-o-Pele_,
Hiiaka-of-the-bosom-of-Pele. Why she should be spoken of as
capable of healing diseases is not at all clear.]

[Footnote 17: _Ulu_. Here we have the word _ulu_ in its
simple, uncombined form, meaning to enter into and inspire.]

The wildwoods of Hawaii furnished in great abundance and
variety small poles for the framework of the kuahu, the
altar, the holy place of the halau, and sweet-scented leaves
and flowers suitable for its decoration. A spirit of fitness,
however, limited choice among these to certain species that
were deemed acceptable to the goddess because they were
reckoned as among her favorite forms of metamorphosis. To go
outside this ordained and traditional range would have been
an offense, a sacrilege. This critical spirit would have
looked with the greatest disfavor on the practice that in
modern times has crept in, of bedecking the dancers with
garlands of roses, pinks, jessamine, and other nonindigenous
flowers, as being utterly repugnant to the traditional spirit
of the hula.

Among decorations approved and most highly esteemed stood
pre-eminent the fragrant maile (pl. IV) and the star-like
fronds and ruddy drupe of the _ie-ie_ (pl. II) and its
kindred, the _hala-pepe_ (pl. III); the scarlet pompons of
the _lehua_ (pl. XIII) and _ohi'a_, with the fruit of the
latter (the mountain-apple); many varieties of fern,
including that splendid parasite, the "bird's nest fern"
[Page 20] (_ekaha_), hailed by the Hawaiians as Mawi's paddle; to which
must be added the commoner leaves and lemon-colored flowers
of the native hibiscus, the _hau_, the breadfruit, the native
banana and the dracaena (_ti_), plate V; and lastly, richest
of all, in the color that became Hawaii's favorite, the royal
yellow _ilima_ (pl. VI), a flower familiar to the eyes of the
tourist to Honolulu.

While deft hands are building and weaving the light framework
of the kuahu, binding its parts with strong vines and
decorating it with nature's sumptuous embroidery, the _kumu_,
or teacher, under the inspiration of the deity, for whose
residence he has prepared himself by long vigil and fasting
with fleshly abstinence, having spent the previous night
alone in the halau, is chanting or cantillating his adulatory
prayers, _kanaenae_--songs of praise they seem to be--to the
glorification of the gods and goddesses who are invited to
bless the occasion with their presence and inspiration, but
especially of that one, Laka, whose bodily presence is
symbolized by a rude block of wood arrayed in yellow tapa
that is set up on the altar itself. Thus does the kumu sing:


_Pule Kuahu_

El' au e Laka mai uka,
E Laka mai kai;
O hooulu
O ka ilio[18] nana e hae,
5 O ka maile hihi i ka wao,
O ka lau-ki[19] lei o ke akua,
O na ku'i hauoli
O Ha'i-ka-manawa.[20]
O Laka oe,
10 O ke akua i ke kuahu nei, la;
E ho'i, ho'i mai a noho i kou kuahu!

[Translation]

_Altar-Prayer_ (to Laka)

Here am I, oh Laka from the mountains,
Oh Laka from the shore;
Protect us
Against the dog that barks;

[Page 21] 5 Reside in the wild-twining maile
And the goddess-enwreathing ti.
All, the joyful pulses.
Of the woman Ha'i-ka-manawa!
Thou art Laka,
10 The god of this altar;
Return, return, abide in thy shrine!

[Footnote 18: _Ilio nana e hae_. The barking of a dog, the
crowing of a cock, the grunting of a pig, the hooting of an
owl, or any such sound occurring at the time of a religious
solemnity, _aha_, broke the spell of the incantation and
vitiated the ceremony. Such an untimely accident was as much
deprecated as were the Turk, the Comet, and the Devil by
pious Christian souls during the Middle Ages.]

[Footnote 19: _Lau-ki_. The leaf of the _ti_ plant--the
same as the _ki_--(Dracaena terminalis), much used as an emblem
of divine power, a charm or defense against malign spiritual
influences. The kahuna often wore about his neck a fillet of
this leaf. The _ti_ leaf was a special emblem of Ha'i-wahine,
or of Li'a-wahine. It was much used as a decoration about the
halau.]

[Footnote 20: _Ha'i-ka-manawa_. It is conjectured that this is
the same as Ha'i-wahine. She was a mythological character,
about whom there is a long and tragic story.]

The prayers which the hula folk of old times chanted while
gathering the material in the woods or while weaving it into
shape in the halau for the construction of a shrine did not
form a rigid liturgy; they formed rather a repertory as
elastic as the sighing of the breeze, or the songs of the
birds whose notes embroidered the pure mountain air. There
were many altar-prayers, so that if a prayer came to an end
before the work was done the priest had but to begin the
recitation of another prayer, or, if the spirit of the
occasion so moved him, he would take up again a prayer
already repeated, for until the work was entirely
accomplished the voice of prayer must continue to be heard.

The _pule_ now to be given seems to be specially suited to
that portion of the service which took place in the woods at
the gathering of the poles and greenery. It was designed
specially for the placating of the little god-folk who from
their number were addressed as _Kini o ke Akua_, the
multitude of the little gods, and who were the counterparts
in old Hawaii of our brownies, elfins, sprites, kobolds,
gnomes, and other woodland imps. These creatures, though
dwarfish and insignificant in person, were in such
numbers--four thousand, forty thousand, four hundred
thousand--and were so impatient of any invasion of their
territory, so jealous of their prerogatives, so spiteful and
revengeful when injured, that it was policy always to keep on
the right side of them.

_Pule Kuahu_

E hooulu ana I Kini[21] o ke Akua,
Ka lehu o ke Akua,
Ka mano o ke Akua,
I ka pu-ku'i o ke Akua,
5 I ka lalani Akua,
Ia ulu mai o Kane,
Ulu o Kanaloa;
Ulu ka ohia, lau ka ie-ie;
Ulu ke Akua, noho i ke kahua,
10 A a'ea'e, a ulu, a noho kou kuahu.
Eia ka pule la, he pule ola.

_Chorus:_

E ola ana oe!

[Footnote 21: _Kini o ke Akua._ See note _d_, p. 24.]

[Page 22]

[Translation]

_Altar-Prayer_

Invoke we now the four thousand,
The myriads four of the nimble,
The four hundred thousand elves,
The countless host of sprites,
5 Rank upon rank of woodland gods.
Pray, Kane, also inspire us;
Kanaloa, too, join the assembly.
Now grows the _ohi'a_, now leafs _ie-ie_;
God enters, resides in the place;
10 He mounts, inspires, abides in the shrine.
This is our prayer, our plea this for life!

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