The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria

M >> Morris Jastrow >> The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria

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As yet but a small proportion of this literature has been published, and
a thorough understanding of it is impossible until systematic
publications shall have been issued. Meanwhile it is safe to assert
that, as in the case of incantations and prayers, the omens were
generally combined into series by the Babylonian and Assyrian scribes.

Omens From Planets and Stars.

Ihering observes[549] that the stars were observed by the Babylonians in
the interest of navigation. While this is true, yet the chief motive in
the development of astronomy in the Euphrates Valley was the belief that
the movements of the heavenly bodies portended something that was
important for man to know. That the stars served as guides to the
mariner was only an additional reason for attaching great importance to
the heavenly phenomena. Scientific observations were but means to an
end; and the end was invariably the derivation of omens from the
movements and position of the planets and stars. When, therefore, we
find the astronomers sending reports to their royal masters apparently
of a purely scientific character, we may be certain that although no
omens are mentioned, both parties had omens in mind. The astronomical
reports, of which quite a number have already been published,[550] may
therefore be reckoned as part of the omen literature. The vernal equinox
was a period of much significance. The astronomer royal accordingly
reports:[551]

On the sixth day of Nisan,[552]
Day and night were balanced.
There were six double hours of day,
Six double hours of night.
May Nabu and Marduk
Be gracious to the king, my lord.

On another occasion the equinox took place on the 15th of Nisan,[553]
and accordingly this is reported. Again, the appearance of the new moon
was anxiously looked for each month, and the king is informed whether or
not it was seen on the 29th or 30th day of the month.[554]

A watch we kept
On the twenty-ninth day,
The moon we saw.
May Nabu and Marduk
Be gracious to the king, my lord.
From Nabua of the city of Ashur.

An extraordinary event, such as an eclipse, is made the subject of a
more elaborate report. The Babylonian astronomers had developed their
scientific attainments to the point of calculating the time when an
eclipse of the sun or the moon would take place. As this period
approached, they watched for the eclipse. We have an interesting
specimen of a report in which the astronomer announces that an expected
eclipse for which a watch was kept for three days did not appear.[555]
Another addressed to an official reads:[556]

To the Agriculturist,[557] my lord,
Thy servant Nabushumiddin,
An officer of Nineveh,
May Nabu and Marduk be gracious
To the Agriculturist, my lord.
The fourteenth day we kept a watch for the moon.
The moon suffered an eclipse.

The reports pass over into indications of omens with an ease which shows
that the observations of the astronomers were made with this ulterior
motive in view. A report which forms a supplement to one above
translated furnishes the interpretation given to the vernal
equinox:[558]

The moon and sun are balanced,
The subjects will be faithful,[559]
The king of the land will reign for a long time.

The complement, then, to the purely scientific observations is furnished
by these official communications to the kings and others, setting forth
in response, no doubt, to commands or inquiries, the meaning of any
particular phenomenon, or of the position of the planets, or of any of
the stars at any time, or of their movements. Of such communications we
have a large number. They illustrate the great attention that was paid
to details in the observation of the heavenly bodies. The moon as the
basis of the calendrical system occupies the first place in these
reports. Its movements were more varied than those of the sun. Through
its phases, its appearance and disappearance at stated intervals, a safe
point of departure was obtained for time calculations. While the sun
through its daily course regulated the divisions of the day, the moon by
its phases fixed the division of weeks and months. The moon never
appeared quite the same on two successive nights nor in the same part of
the heavens. The more variety, the more significance--was a principle of
general application in the interpretation of omens. Whether the
Babylonians also recognized an influence of the moon on the tides, we
have no certain means of determining, but it is eminently likely that
trained as their astronomers were in careful observation, this was the
case. But apart from this, there were many events in public and private
affairs that appeared to them to stand in close connection with the
movements of the orb of night. Nothing that occurred being regarded as
accidental, the conclusion was forced upon the Babylonians that the time
when something was undertaken was of significance. The fact that certain
undertakings succeeded, while others failed, was most easily explained
upon the theory that there were periods favorable for the action
involved and periods unfavorable. The gathering of past experience thus
becomes a guiding principle in the interpretation of the movements of
the moon; and what applies to the moon applies, of course, to the other
planets and to the stars. No doubt other factors are involved, such as
association of ideas; but it is evident from a careful study of the omen
literature that conclusions drawn from what appears to us as the
accidental relation of past occurrences to the phenomena presented by
the planets and stars constituted fully three-fourths of the wisdom of
the Euphratean augurs. The same report, of which a portion has already
been quoted,[560] continues after interpreting the meaning of the
equinox with a diagnosis of other concurrent conditions:[561]

Sun and moon are seen apart,[562]
The king of the country will manifest wisdom.[563]
On the fourteenth day sun and moon are seen together,
There will be loyalty in the land,
The gods of Babylonia are favorably inclined,
The soldiery will be in accord with the king's desire,
The cattle of Babylonia will pasture in safety.[564]
From Ishtar-shumeresh.

The same conditions appearing on another day may portend precisely the
reverse. So another report informs the king:[565]

On the fifteenth day the sun and moon are seen together,
A powerful enemy raises his weapons against the land,
The enemy will smash the great gate of the city,
The star Anu appears bright,
The enemy will devastate.

It is quite evident that such reports must have been sent in response to
royal orders asking for the meaning of existing conditions or of
conditions that may be observed on certain days. At times the
prognostications assume a remarkable degree of definiteness which forms
a striking contrast to the general vagueness of the oracles. An
official, Balasi, reports[566] on one occasion regarding the
significance of the moon appearing unexpectedly:

The moon is seen out of season,
Crops will be small.
On the twelfth day the moon is seen together with the sun.[567]
Contrary to the calculated time,
The moon and sun appear together,
A strong enemy will devastate the land.
The king of Babylonia will be forced to submit to his enemy.
On the twelfth day, the moon with the sun is seen,
On the twelfth day is seen.
Evil is in store for Babylonia.
It is a favorable sign for Elam and the west land,
But surely unfavorable for Babylonia.

The reports were not always concerned with political affairs. Frequently
there is a reference to lions and hyenas that might be expected to make
their appearance because of certain natural phenomena. Often crops are
referred to, and according as the conditions are favorable or not,
fertility or famine is predicted in the official reports. On other
occasions the astrologers venture the very safe prognostication that
male children will be born or that there will be miscarriages, though it
seems likely that in such cases the forecast is intended for the affairs
of the palace alone.

We have seen[568] what great importance was attached by the Babylonians
to eclipses. It will be appropriate, therefore, to give a specimen of an
astrologer's report in reference to such a phenomenon:[569]

The moon disappeared,[570] evil will settle in the land.
The moon, contrary to calculation, disappeared.
An eclipse has taken place.
On the twenty-ninth day the moon disappeared
And the sun on the day of the eclipse entered the circle.[571]
It is an eclipse of Elam.[572]
If in the month of Kislev,[573] an eclipse is observed
That encircles (?) the sun and the moon disappears,
Upon the observation of the eclipse,
Then may the king be exalted.
May the heart of the king, my lord, rejoice.
From Khushi-ilu, the servant of the king, the eponym.

Another report reads:[574]

To the king, my lord,
Thy servant Ishtar-iddinabal,
The chief of the astronomers of Arbela.
May Nabu, Marduk, Ishtar of Arbela
Be gracious to the king, my lord,
On the twenty-ninth day a watch we kept.
At the observatory clouds,
The moon we did not see.

This report was sent on the second day of the month of Shebat.[575] From
these specimens and others, it is evident that reports regarding the
appearance or non-appearance of the new moon were regularly sent. But in
addition to this, the kings sent to the observatory on numerous other
occasions for information with reference to the significance of certain
phenomena.

As in the case of the moon, so also for the sun and the stars, reports
were transmitted that served as guides in directing the kings in their
affairs. So on one occasion Nabu-mushesi forecasts that[576]

If the 'great lion' star is dark,
It is favorable for the country.
If the 'king' star is dark,
The chamberlain[577] (?) of the palace dies.

The official character of these reports is one of their significant
features. Their great variety is an indication of the frequent occasions
on which the kings consulted the astrologers. No important enterprise
was undertaken without first ascertaining what phenomena might be looked
for on the day fixed for any action, and what these phenomena portended.
In the case of the Assyrian reports, it is natural to find many
allusions to foreign nations, since war occupied so much of the time and
energies of the Assyrian rulers. But we have seen that for private
affairs the astrologers were also consulted, as well as for the internal
affairs of the country. The reports illustrate the practical application
of what became known in the ancient world as "Chaldaean wisdom." If,
however, we would know the source whence the astrologers derived the
knowledge which they furnished in their reports, we must turn to the
long lists prepared by the priests, in which all possible phenomena
connected with the planets and stars were noted and their meaning
indicated. These compilations constitute the 'Priestly Codes' of the
Babylonians, and, as already intimated, they were combined just as the
incantations and prayers, into series. Many such series must have
existed at one time in Babylonia. A great temple was incomplete without
its observatory, and we are warranted in concluding that every great
religious center of the Euphrates Valley had its collection of omen
tablets. The natural ambition of the priests was to make such a series
as complete as possible. The larger the number of observations it
contained, the greater the possibility of finding an answer to the
question put to them. To these lists additions would constantly be made,
and, if we may judge from the manner of literary composition that
prevailed among the ancient Hebrews and later among the Arabs, the work
of the compilers of omen series consisted essentially in combining
whatever material they could obtain, and adding such observations as
they themselves had made. While, therefore, the omen code of one place
might differ in details from that of another, not only would the
underlying principles be the same in all, but each series would
represent an aggregation of experiences and observations drawn from
various quarters.

A large omen series of which as yet only fragments have been
published[578] bears the title 'Illumination of Bel.' It is estimated
that this astrological code embraced more than one hundred tablets. From
the fragments published, the general method employed in the preparation
of the series can be gathered. To the moon and to the sun, to each of
the planets, and to the important stars a separate section was assigned.
In this section the peculiarities, regular and irregular, connected with
each of the bodies were noted, their appearance and disappearance, the
conditions prevailing at rising and at setting, the relationship of the
moon to the sun or to a star, of the stars to one another and to the
ecliptic, were set forth. Since, however, the time when a phenomenon
connected with a planet or star was as important as the phenomenon
itself, observations were entered for the various months of the year and
for various days in each month. The days were not arbitrarily chosen,
but, as there is every reason to believe, selected on the basis of past
experience. Similarly the interpretations of the phenomena were founded
on the actual occurrence of certain events at certain times when the
conditions indicated actually existed. A single occurrence might suffice
for predicating a connection between the event and the phenomenon. The
coincidence would constitute an observation, but the omen would
naturally gain additional force if it was based on a repeated
observation of the same phenomenon on the same day of the same month.
But such a case would be rare, and the effort of the astrologers would
be directed simply towards gathering as many observations of phenomena
as possible. They would rest content when they had found a single
connection between the phenomenon and the event. Their success in giving
an answer to a question put to them as to what might happen on a certain
day, fixed for battle or for laying the foundations of an edifice, or
for dedicating a temple, for setting out on an expedition, or for any
undertaking whatsoever, would depend on the completeness of their lists,
and correspondingly the interpretation of a phenomenon occurring on any
day would entail no difficulties if in their consultation lists the
phenomenon would be recorded.

The 22d tablet of the series 'Illumination of Bel' deals with the
important subject of eclipses. It contains 88 lines, and furnishes us
with a good specimen of the class of omens under consideration. It
begins[579] with eclipses that may take place during the first month,
and runs along through the twelve months of the year. The 14th, 15th,
16th, 20th, and 21st days of the month are those set down when eclipses
have been observed. The official character of the omens is indicated by
their repeated references to the nations with which Babylonia--and later
Assyria--came into contact, and to the fate in store for the rulers of
the country. For the third month, the tablet notes:

In the month of Sivan, an eclipse happening on the 14th day,
proceeding from east to west, beginning with the middle
watch,[580] and ending with the morning watch, the shadow being
seen in the east--the side of obscuration--furnishes an
omen[581] for the king of Dilmun.[582] The king of Dilmun is
slain.

An eclipse happening on the 15th day, the king of Dilmun is
slain, and some one seizes the throne.

An eclipse happening on the 16th day, the king is deposed and
slain, and a worthless person seizes the throne.

An eclipse happening on the 20th day, rains descend from heaven,
and the canals are flooded.

An eclipse happening on the 21st day, sorrow and despair in the
land. The land is full of corpses.

The eclipses for the fourth month furnish omens for the king of
Guti--another district with which Babylonia and Assyria had frequent
dealings.

An eclipse happening in the month of Tammuz on the 14th day,
proceeding from the west to the south, beginning with the first
watch and ending with the middle watch, the shadow being seen in
the west--the side of obscuration--furnishes an omen for the
king of Guti. Overthrow of Guti by force, followed by complete
submission.

An eclipse happening on the 15th day[583], rains descend from
heaven, floods come upon the land, famine in the land.

An eclipse happening on the 16th day, women have miscarriages.

An eclipse happening on the 20th day, storms set in and famine;
afterwards for a year storms destroy property[584].

An eclipse happening on the 21st day, the armies of the king
revolt and deliver him into the hands of enemies.

The eclipses of the following month deal with several countries.

An eclipse in the month of Ab[585] on the 14th day, proceeding
from the south to the east, beginning with the first watch, or
with the morning watch, and ending at sunrise, the shadow being
seen in the south--the side of obscuration--furnishes an omen
for the king of Umliash. The soldiery are engaged in severe
conflicts for a year, and are slain by force of arms.

An eclipse happening on the 15th day[586], the king dies, and
rains descend from heaven, and floods fill the canals.

An eclipse happening on the 16th day, the king of Babylonia
dies. Pestilence[587] feeds upon the country.

An eclipse happening on the 20th day, the king of the
Hittites[588] in person (?) seizes the throne.

An eclipse happening on the 21st day, a deity strikes (?) the
king, and fire consumes king and land.

From these specimens, the general principle of the section is apparent.
Since eclipses portend public and political disasters of some kind, the
compiler has carefully gathered oracles given on previous occasions to
some ruler, or observations of the events that occurred at the time of
the recorded eclipses. The apparently restricted application of the
omens was no hindrance to their practical use. In the event of an
astrologer being consulted with regard to the significance of an eclipse
on a certain day, his list would furnish a safe basis for further
prognostications, suitable to the political conditions that prevailed.
But in order to meet all contingencies, other lists furnishing further
omens for eclipses were added. The 22d tablet of the 'Illumination of
Bel' series is followed by one[589] which, while dealing with the same
subject, approaches it somewhat differently, and is based on a different
principle. It begins again with the first month, and in twelve
paragraphs takes up in succession the months of the year. Choosing for
comparison the same three months, the third, fourth, and fifth, which we
selected in the case of the 22d tablet, it will be seen that, while the
references are again to public affairs, the prognostications are of a
more general character and of wider applicability.

If in the 3d month an eclipse takes place on the 14th day, rains
will descend and flood the canals. Storms will cause
inundations. The soldiery of Babylonia will destroy the country.
An eclipse on the 15th day indicates that king against king will
send troops[590]. The king of legions dies. An eclipse on the
16th day signifies that the king will be slain, and that some
one will seize the throne.[591] An eclipse on the 20th day means
that the king will hand his throne to his son. An eclipse
happening on the 21st day portends rain,[592] and an invasion of
the enemy's land.

For the 4th month an eclipse on the 14th day portends that rains
will descend and the canals will be flooded. Rains will cause
inundations. There will be famine. A large country will be
reduced to a small one. An eclipse on the 15th day portends that
rains will descend, canals will be flooded, and there will be
famine in the land. An eclipse on the 16th day portends famine
for a year. An eclipse on the 20th day portends destruction of
the king and his army. An eclipse happening on the 21st day
indicates that there will be a strong wind that will destroy the
riches of the sea.[593]

For the 5th month an eclipse on the 14th day portends rains and
flooding of canals. The crops will be good and king will send
peace to king.[594] An eclipse on the 15th day portends
destructive war. The land will be filled with corpses. An
eclipse on the 16th day indicates that pregnant women will be
happily delivered of their offspring. An eclipse on the 20th day
portends that lions will cause terror and that reptiles will
appear; an eclipse on the 21st day that destruction (?) will
overtake the riches of the sea.[593]

The vagueness of many of the prognostications is in all probabilities
intentional, just as we found to be the case in most of the oracles
announced to the kings. To predict rains during the rainy months was
comparatively safe. The storms which visited Babylonia annually brought
with them destruction of cattle. They conditioned the fertility of the
country, but pestilence was often caused by the evaporation of the
waters. Again, military expeditions were usually undertaken in the
spring of the year before the great heat set in, and in a country like
Assyria, it was safe to hazard a vague prediction that hostilities would
ensue, and that some district would be diminished.

What may be called the 'eclectic' character of the omen series under
consideration thus becomes apparent. The lists consisted, on the one
hand, of omens obtained on certain occasions and with reference to some
specific circumstance, such as a campaign against some country, and, on
the other hand, of prognostications of a more general character, based
on the general climatic conditions of the country, and referring to
events of frequent occurrence. All that the scribes in preparing the
series were concerned with, was to collect as many omens as they could,
and to arrange them in some convenient order. Just as they prepared
lists referring to military events, so they put together others in which
some other theme was treated. The reports and omen tablets thus
complement one another. The latter are based on the former, and the
former were obtained by the interpretation of phenomena, furnished by
the tablets and applied to the particular case submitted to the priests.
We need not, of course, suppose that _all_ prognostications found in the
series, especially in those parts of it which are of a more general
character, were based upon reports actually made, any more than that the
official reports to the kings even in later days were always based upon
a consultation of some series of tablets. Individual judgment, both in
compiling a series and in interpreting phenomena, must at all times have
played some part. The reports and the series also embody to some extent
the results of experience not previously put to writing; but these
considerations do not alter the general proposition set forth in this
chapter as to the practical purpose served by the omen series as well as
by the reports, and the pragmatic origin of both.

The importance of eclipses gave to omens connected with such events a
special significance. Eclipses, however, were after all rare events, and
while because of their rarity they always portended something of great
moment, still the ordinary phenomena were the ones that had to be
studied by the astrologers with great care in order to obtain a rational
view of the relationship between the phenomena of nature and the fate of
the individual or of the state. Again, eclipses, as a general thing,
pointed to a public disaster of some kind, and this recognized belief
lightened the task of the priest considerably in this instance. In the
case of ordinary phenomena it was much more difficult to find the
connection between cause and effect; and in the vast majority of
instances when kings and individuals sought the temples for omens, the
heavens must have presented a normal and not an abnormal appearance.

What answers were the priests to give to the questions put to them? Was
it a favorable period for undertaking a military campaign? On what day
should the king set out? Was the day fixed on by the council of war
favorable for a battle? On what day should the foundation for the temple
or palace be laid? Will the sick person recover? Should one set out on a
proposed journey? Is the day fixed for a marriage auspicious?

Recognizing by experience that the same thing undertaken at different
times turned out differently, in the one case being brought to a
successful issue, in the other followed by misfortune, the conclusion
was forced upon the popular mind (as already set forth above) that the
day on which something was done or was to be done was of great moment.

But how did one day differ from the other? That was the question for the
priests to determine. During the hours that the sun was in control, the
clouds produced constant changes in the appearance of the heavens, but
because of their irregular character, these changes impressed the
Babylonians less forcibly than the striking changes that the nights
showed. The planets and stars never appeared alike on two successive
nights. There was always some change in the position of some of the
heavenly bodies. To these changes, then, the priests directed their
attention. In the variations presented by the heavens at night they saw
a potent reason for the varying results produced by the same act
undertaken at different times.