The Witch cult in Western Europe

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'saith, that as shee was going to St Osyth to sell her masters butter,
a man met with her, being in a ragged sute, and having such great
eyes, that this examinant was much afraid of him; who came to this
examinant and gave her three things like to moules, having foure feet
a piece, but without tayles, and of a black colour, and bid this
examinant nurse the said three things, untill he did desire them
againe; And the said man told this examinant, that those three things
which he gave her, would avenge her on her enemies, and bid her
murther some, but not too many, and he would forgive her; and then
went away from this examinant.'[862]

In 1646 the Huntingdonshire witch, Joane Wallis, said that Blackman 'told
her he would send one Grissell and Greedigut to her, that shall do any
thing for her. And after Blackman was departed from her, within three or
four dayes, Grissell and Greedigut came to her, in the shapes of
dogges.'[863] Another witch of the same Coven, Elizabeth Weed, confessed
that 'there did appeare unto her three Spirits, one in the likenesse of a
young man or boy, and the other two of two Puppies, the one white and the
other black.'[864]

2. The gift from a fellow-witch was always a domestic familiar, as to the
Devil alone belonged the power of appointing a divining familiar; therefore
this method of obtaining a familiar is found only in the eastern counties
and other places where the domestic or sucking familiar is recorded. In
1556 Elizabeth Francis, whose evidence was corroborated by Mother
Waterhouse, said that 'she came to one mother Waterhouse her neighbour, she
brought her this cat in her apron and taught her as she was instructed by
her grandmother Eue, telling her that she must cal him Sathan and geue him
of her bloude and bread and milke as before.--Mother Waterhouse said, she
receyued this cat of this Frances wife in the order as is before
sayde.'[865] In 1566 John Walsh, the Dorset witch, 'being demaunded whether
he had euer any Familiar or no: he sayth that he had one of his sayde
mayster. He being demaunded howe long he had the vse of the Familiar: He
sayd one yeare by his sayd maister's life, and iiii yeres after his
death.'[866] An Essex witch in 1588 had three familiars, 'one like a cat,
which she called Lightfoot. This Lightfoote, she said, one mother Barlie,
of W., solde her aboue sixteene yeares ago, for an ouen cake, and told her
the Cat would do her good seruice, if she woulde, she might send her of her
errand.'[867] At Orleans in 1614 Gentil le Clerc said that he had seen
Nevillon's familiar, and that Nevillon 'luy a dit vne douzaine de fois, que
s'il vouloit il luy en feroit auoir vne'.[868] Elizabeth Clarke in Essex in
1645 said she 'had three impes from her mother, which were of a broune
colour, and two from old beldam Weste. The said Anne Weste seemed much to
pitie this examinant for her lamenesse (having but one leg) and her
poverty; And said to this examinant, That there was wayes and meanes for
her to live much better then now shee did: And said, that shee would send
to this examinant a thing like a little kitlyn, which would fetch home some
victualls for this examinant; and that it should doe her no hurt.'[869] The
Huntingdonshire witch, Francis Moore, in 1646, 'saith that about eight
yeares since she received a little blacke puppy from one Margaret Simson of
great Catworth. The Examinate further saith, that the said Margaret told
her, that she must keep that dogge all her life time; and if she cursed any
Cattell, and set the same dog upon them, they should presently dye. And the
said Examinate further saith, that about the same time one goodwife Weed
gave her a white Cat, telling her, that if she would deny God, and affirme
the same by her bloud, then whomsoever she cursed and sent that Cat unto,
they should dye shortly after.'[870]

3. The profession of the witch-religion being hereditary, it is not
uncommon to find that the familiar descended from mother to daughter. This,
like the familiar given by one witch to another, was the domestic familiar.
It was sometimes presented during the mother's lifetime or was left as a
legacy at her death. Elizabeth Francis in 1556 stated that 'she learned
this arte of witchcraft at the age of xii yeres of hyr grandmother whose
nam mother Eue of Hatfyelde Peuerell, disseased. Item when shee taughte it
her, she counseiled her to renounce GOD and his worde and to geue of her
bloudde to Sathan (as she termed it) whyche she delyuered her in the
lykenesse of a whyte spotted Catte.'[871] In 1582 Ales Hunt of St. Osyth
confessed to having two spirits, and 'saith, that her sister (named
Margerie Sammon) hath also two spirites like Toades, the one called Tom,
and the other Robbyn: And saith further, her sayde Syster and shee had the
sayd spyrites of their Mother, Mother Barnes.'[872] In 1597 the Derbyshire
witch, Alse Gooderidge, stated that 'the Diuell appeared to me in lykenesse
of a little partie-colored dog red and white, and I called him Minny. She
saide she had her familiar of her mother.'[873] The Essex witches, tried in
1645, also inherited familiars from their mothers. Anne Cooper confessed
'that she the said Anne offered to give unto her daughter Sarah Cooper an
impe in the likenes of a gray kite (i.e. kit, or cat), to suck on the said
Sarah.--Susan Cock saith, that about three or four yeeres since, one
Margery Stoakes, this examinants mother, lying upon her death-bed, and this
examinant comming to visit her, shee the said Margery desired this
examinant privately to give entertainment to two of her imps, and withall
told this examinant, they would do this examinant good; And this examinant
saith, that the same night her said mother dyed, the said two imps came to
her accordingly, and sucked on her body.--Anne Cate saith, That she hath
four familiars, which shee had from her mother, about two and twenty yeeres
since.'[874] In 1667 at Liverpool, 'Margaret Loy, being arraigned for a
witch, confessed she was one; and when she was asked how long she had so
been, replied, Since the death of her mother, who died thirty years ago;
and at her decease she had nothing to leave her, and this widow Bridge,
that were sisters, but her two spirits; and named them, the eldest spirit
to this widow, and the other spirit to her the said Margaret Loy.'[875]
This inheritance of a familiar may be compared with the Lapp custom: 'The
Laplanders bequeath their Demons as part of their inheritance, which is the
reason that one family excels another in this magical art.'[876]

4. The method of obtaining a familiar by means of magical words or actions
is clearly described in two modern examples:

'Sometime in the beginning of the last century, two old dames attended
the morning service at Llanddewi Brefi Church, and partook of the Holy
Communion; but instead of eating the sacred bread like other
communicants, they kept it in their mouths and went out. Then they
walked round the Church outside nine times, and at the ninth time the
Evil One came out from the Church wall in the form of a frog, to whom
they gave the bread from their mouths, and by doing this wicked thing
they were supposed to be selling themselves to Satan and become
witches.--There was an old man in North Pembrokeshire, who used to say
that he obtained the power of bewitching in the following manner: The
bread of his first Communion he pocketed. He made pretence at eating
it first of all, and then put it in his pocket. When he went out from
the service there was a dog meeting him by the gate, to which he gave
the bread, thus selling his soul to the Devil. Ever after, he
possessed the power to bewitch.'[877]

On the analogy of these two examples, I suggest that in the accounts of
familiars offering themselves to the witch, there was, previous to such
appearance, some formula of words or some magical action which are not
recorded. The animal, which first appeared after such words or actions,
would be considered as the Devil, as in the two cases quoted above. Such an
explanation accounts for the statements of some of the witches that on the
appearance of the animal they at once renounced the Christian religion and
vowed obedience to the new God. It is noticeable that in many cases the
accused acknowledged that, before the appearance of the animal, they had
been 'banning and cursing', in other words, calling on the Devil; the
appearance of the animal, after such summons, produced neither surprise nor
alarm, and in fact seems to have been regarded as the effect of their
words.

In 1556 Joan Waterhouse, the eighteen-year-old daughter of the witch Mother
Waterhouse, of Hatfield Peveril, being angry with another girl, 'shee
goinge home dydde as she had seene her mother doe, callynge Sathan, whiche
came to her (as she sayd) in the lykenes of a great dogge'.[878] At
Aberdeen in 1597 Agnes Wobster said that the Devil appeared 'in the liknes
of a lamb, quhom thow callis thy God, and bletit on the, and thaireftir
spak to the'.[879] James Device, one of the chief of the Lancashire witches
in 1613, confessed 'that vpon Sheare Thursday was two yeares, his
Grand-Mother Elizabeth Sothernes, alias Dembdike, did bid him this
Examinate goe to the Church to receiue the Communion (the next day after
being Good Friday) and then not to eate the Bread the Minister gaue him,
but to bring it and deliuer it to such a thing as should meet him in his
way homewards: Notwithstanding her perswasions, this Examinate did eate the
Bread; and so in his comming homeward some fortie roodes off the said
Church, there met him a thing in the shape of a Hare, who spoke vnto this
Examinate, and asked him whether hee had brought the Bread.'[880] In 1621
Elizabeth Sawyer, the witch of Edmonton, said that 'the first time that the
Diuell came vnto me was, when I was cursing, swearing, and
blaspheming'.[881] The evidence of the Huntingdonshire witches, John
Winnick and Ellen Shepheard, in 1646 (see above, p. 219), and of Dorothy
Ellis of Cambridgeshire in 1647, also show that the animal which appeared
to the witch after an access of emotion was at once acknowledged as God and
accepted as the familiar. Mary Osgood of Andover in 1692 'confesses that
about 11 years ago, when she was in a melancholy state and condition, she
used to walk abroad in her orchard; and upon a certain time, she saw the
appearance of a cat, at the end of the house, which yet she thought was a
real cat. However, at that time, it diverted her from praying to God, and
instead thereof she prayed to the devil.[882]

The familiars in human form were human beings usually of the sex opposite
to that of the witch. As these familiars were generally called 'Devils' it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish them from the Grand-master;[883] but
the evidence, taken as a whole, suggests that at certain parts of the
ritual every individual of the company was known as a Devil. This
suggestion is borne out in the modern survival of an ancient dance in the
Basses-Pyrenees, where the dancers to this day are called Satans.[884]

Lady Alice Kyteler, in 1324, was accused that the Devil came to her
'quandoque in specie cujusdam aethiopis cum duobus sociis'.[885] In 1598
the Lyons witches, Thievenne Paget and Antoine Tornier, speak of 'leurs
Demons' as distinct from the great Devil, and the evidence of all the other
witches shows that 'il y a encor des Demons, qui assistent a ces
danses'.[886] De Lancre says that there was more than one Devil: the great
one, who was called Maitre Leonard, and a little one called Maitre Jean
Mullin. It was this smaller Devil who held the meetings in the absence of
the Chief:

'en la place du Grad maistre, il n'y auoit qu'vn petit Diable ou Demon
qui n'auoit point de cornes, lequel ne contentoit pas la compagnie
comme son maistre. Qu'elles n'auoient tant de confiance en toute la
trouppe des mauuais Anges qu'en celuy seul qu'ils auoient accoustume
d'adorer & seruir.--A table on se sied selon sa qualite, ayant chacun
son Demon assis aupres, & parfois vis a vis. Et quand ils ont mange,
chaque Demon pred sa disciple par la main, & danse auec elle.'[887]

In 1618 Joan Willimott of Leicester confessed 'that shee hath a Spirit
which shee calleth Pretty, which was giuen vnto her by William Berry, whom
she serued three yeares; the Spirit stood vpon the ground in the shape and
forme of a Woman, which Spirit did aske of her her Soule, which shee then
promised vnto it, being willed thereunto by her Master'.[888] In 1633,
Margaret Johnson, the Lancashire witch, stated that 'besides theire
particular familiars or spirits, there was one greate or grand devill, or
spirit, more eminent than the rest. Shee allsoe saith, yt if a witch have
but one marke, shee hath but one spirit; if two, then two spirits; if
three, yet but two spirits. Shee alsoe saith, that men witches usually have
women spirits, and women witches men spirits.'[889] In 1649 at St. Albans a
man witch had 'two familiars, the one in the form of a dog, which he called
George, and the other in the likeness of a woman, called Jezebell'.[890] In
1662 at Auldearne Issobell Gowdie confessed

'ther is threttein persones in ilk Coeven; and ilk on of vs has an
Sprit to wait wpon ws, quhan ve pleas to call wpon him. I remember not
all the Spritis names; bot thair is on called Swein, quhilk waitis
wpon the said Margret Wilson in Aulderne; he is still [always] clothed
in grass-grein. The nixt Sprit is called Rorie, who waitis wpon Bessie
Wilsone, in Aulderne; he is still clothed in yallow. The third Sprit
is called The Roring Lyon, who waitis wpon Issobell Nicoll, in
Lochlow, and he is still clothed in sea-grein. The fowrth Spirit is
called Mak Hector, qwho waitis wpon Jean Martein, dawghter to the said
Margret Wilson; he is a yowng-lyk Devill, clothed still in
grass-grein.... The nam of the fyft Sprit is Robert the Rule, and he
still clothed in sadd-dun, and seimis to be a Comander of the rest of
the Spritis; and he waittis wpon Margret Brodie, in Aulderne. The name
of the saxt Sprit is called Thieff of Hell, Wait wpon Hir Selfe; and
he waitis also on the said Bessie Wilson. The name of the sevinth
Sprit is called The Read Reiver; and he is my owin Spirit, that
waittis on my selfe, and is still clothed in blak. The aucht Spirit is
called Robert the Jackis, still clothed in dune, and seimes to be
aiged. He is ane glaiked gowked Spirit. The nynth Spirit is called
Laing. The tenth Spirit is named Thomas a Fearie, &c.[891] Ther wilbe
many vther Divellis, waiting wpon our Maister Divell; bot he is bigger
and mor awfull than the rest of the Divellis, and they all reverence
him. I will ken them all, on by on, from vtheris, quhan they appeir
lyk a man.'

In a later confession Issobell gave the names more fully. 'The names of owr
Divellis that waited wpon ws, ar thes. First, Robert, the Jakis; Sanderis,
the Read Reaver; Thomas, the Fearie; Swein, the roaring Lion; Thieffe of
Hell, wait wpon hir self; Makhectour; Robert, the Rule; Hendrie Laing; and
Rorie.'[892] In Connecticut in 1662 'Robert Sterne testifieth as followeth:
I saw this woman goodwife Seager in ye woods wth three more women and with
them I saw two black creatures like two Indians but taller. I saw the women
dance round these black creatures and whiles I looked upon them one of the
women G. Greensmith said looke who is yonder and then they ran away up the
hill. I stood still and ye black things came towards mee and then I turned
to come away.'[893]

4. _Transformations into Animals_

The belief that human beings can change themselves, or be changed, into
animals carries with it the corollary that wounds received by a person when
in the semblance of an animal will remain on the body after the return to
human shape. This belief seems to be connected with the worship of
animal-gods or sacred animals, the worshipper being changed into an animal
by being invested with the skin of the creature, by the utterance of
magical words, by the making of magical gestures, the wearing of a magical
object, or the performance of magical ceremonies. The witches of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries appear to have carried on the tradition
of the pre-Christian cults; and the stories of their transformations, when
viewed in the light of the ancient examples, are capable of the same
explanation. Much confusion, however, has been caused by the religious and
so-called scientific explanations of the contemporary commentators, as
well as by the unfortunate belief of modern writers in the capacity of
women for hysteria. At both periods pseudo-science has prevented the
unbiassed examination of the material.

There are no records extant of the animals held sacred by the early
inhabitants of Great Britain, but it is remarkable that the range of the
witches' transformations was very limited; cats and hares were the usual
animals, occasionally but rarely dogs, mice, crows, rooks, and bees. In
France, where the solemn sacrifice of a goat at the Sabbath points to that
animal being sacred, it is not surprising to find both men and women
witches appearing as goats and sheep. Unless there were some definite
meaning underlying the change of shape, there would be no reason to prevent
the witches from transforming themselves into animals of any species. It
would seem then that the witches, like the adorers of animal gods in
earlier times, attempted to become one with their god or sacred animal by
taking on his form; the change being induced by the same means and being as
real to the witch as to Sigmund the Volsung[894] or the worshipper of
Lycaean Zeus.[895]

In the earlier cults the worshipper, on becoming an animal, changed his
outward shape to the eye of faith alone, though his actions and probably
his voice proclaimed the transformation. The nearest approach to an outward
change was by covering the body with the skin of the animal, or by wearing
a part of the skin or a mask. The witches themselves admitted that they
were masked and veiled, and the evidence of other witnesses goes to prove
the same. Boguet suggests that the disguise was used to hide their
identity, which was possibly the case at times, but it seems more probable,
judging by the evidence, that the masking and veiling were for ritual
purposes.

In Lorraine in 1589 a male witness stated that 'indem wird er eine Hoele,
welche sie nennen die Morelianische Klippe, gewahr, darinnen sechs Weiber
mit Larven umb ein Tisch voll guldernen und silbernen Geschieren herumb
tanzten'.--Bernhardt's Nicolaea said that she had seen in an open field
'mitten am hellen Tage, einen Tantz von Maennern und Weibern, und weil
dieselben auff eine besondere Weise und hinterruecks tantzten, kam es ihr
frembd fuer, stunde derhalben still, und sahe mit allem Fleiss zu da ward
sie gewahr, das etliche in dem Reyhen waren so Geiss und Kuhfuss
hatten'.[896] At North Berwick in 1590 seven score witches 'danced endlong
the Kirk yard. John Fian, missellit [muffled, masked] led the ring.'[897]
The witches whom Boguet examined in 1598 confessed to using masks: 'Les
Sorciers dansent doz cotre doz, pour ne pas estre recogneus; pour la mesme
raison ils se masquent encor' auiourd'huy pour la plus part.--Ils se
masquent pour le iour d'huy, selon que Clauda Paget l'a confesse, & auec
elle plusieurs autres.--Estienne Poicheux rapportoit que partie des femmes,
qu'elle auoit veues au Sabbat, estaient voilees. Et pour cela aussi les
Lombards par leurs loix les appellent _Mascas_.'[898] In 1609 de Lancre
points out that in the Basses-Pyrenees there were two grades of witches:
'Il y en a de deux sortes. Auc[~u]s sont voilez pour doner opinion aux
pauures que ce sont des Princes & grads seigneurs. Les autres sont
decouuerts & tout ouuertemet dacent, & ceux cy ne sont si pres du maistre,
si fauoris ne si employez.'[899] In 1613 Barbe, the wife of Jean-Remy Colin
de Moyemont, said that 'elle a veu dancer les assistans en nombre de sept a
huict personnes, partie desquelles elle ne cognoissoit ad cause des masques
hideux qu'elles auoient de noire.'[900]

Josine Deblicq in Hainault (1616) was asked, 'Que savez vous de la
troisieme danse? R. Elle eut lieu au Rond-Cheneau, sur le chemin de
Nivelles, pres d'une fontaine. Il y avait bien 21 ou 22 femmes, toutes
masquees, chacune avec son amoureux accoutre d'un deguisement bleu, jaune
ou noir.'[901] In 1652 a French witch 'dist qu'elles dansoient les dots
l'une a l'autre et qu'au milieux il y auoit vne feme masquee tenant vne
chandelle'.[902]

It will be seen from the above that the witches were often disguised at the
dance, a fact strongly suggesting that the masking was entirely ritual. As
the witch trials in Great Britain seldom mention, much less describe, the
dance, it follows that the greater number of the cases of masks are found
in France, though a few occur in Scotland, still fewer in England.

The transformation by means of an animal's skin or head is mentioned in the
_Liber Poenitentialis_ of Theodore in 668 (see p. 21). It continued among
the witches, and in 1598 in the Lyons district 'il y a encor des Demons,
qui assistent a ces danses en forme de boucs, ou de moutons. Antoine
Tornier dit, que lors qu'elle dansoit, vn mouton noir la tenoit par la main
auec ses pieds bien haireux, c'est a dire rudes & reuesches'.[903]

In many cases it is very certain that the transformation was ritual and not
actual; that is to say the witches did not attempt to change their actual
forms but called themselves cats, hares, or other animals. In the Aberdeen
trials of 1596-7 the accused are stated to have 'come to the Fish Cross of
this burgh, under the conduct of Sathan, ye all danced about the Fish Cross
and about the Meal market a long space'. Here there is no suggestion of any
change of form, yet in the accusation against Bessie Thom, who was tried
for the same offence, the dittay states that 'there, accompanied with thy
devilish companions and faction, transformed in other likeness, some in
hares, some in cats, and some in other similitudes, ye all danced about the
Fish Cross'.[904] In 1617 in Guernsey Marie Becquet said that 'every time
that she went to the Sabbath, the Devil came to her, and it seemed as
though he transformed her into a female dog'.[905] Again at Alloa in 1658,
Margret Duchall, describing the murder of Cowdan's bairns, said 'after they
war turned all in the liknes of cattis, they went in ouer Jean Lindsayis
zaird Dyk and went to Coudans hous, whair scho declared, that the Dewill
being with tham went up the stair first with margret tailzeor Besse Paton
and elspit blak'. On the other hand, Jonet Blak and Kathren Renny, who were
also present and described the same scene, said nothing about the cat-form,
though they particularize the clothes of the other witches. Jonet Blak
said, 'the diwell, margret tailzeor with ane long rok, and kathren renny
with the short rok and the bony las with the blak pok all went up the stair
togidder'; while Kathren Renny said that 'ther was ane bony las with ane
blak pok, who went befor ower Jean Lindsayis zaird dyk and Margret tailzeor
with hir'.[906] The evidence of Marie Lamont (1662) suggests the same idea
of a ritual, though not an actual, change; 'shee confessed, that shee,
Kettie Scot, and Margrat Holm, cam to Allan Orr's house in the likenesse of
kats, and followed his wif into the chalmer'; and on another occasion 'the
devil turned them in likeness of kats, by shaking his hands above their
heads'.[907] In Northumberland (1673) the same fact appears to underlie the
evidence. Ann Armstrong declared that at a witch meeting Ann Baites 'hath
been severall times in the shape of a catt and a hare, and in the shape of
a greyhound and a bee, letting the divell see how many shapes she could
turn herself into.--They [the witches] stood all upon a bare spott of
ground, and bid this informer sing whilst they danced in severall shapes,
first of a haire, then in their owne, and then in a catt, sometimes in a
mouse, and in severall other shapes.--She see all the said persons
beforemencioned danceing, some in the likenesse of haires, some in the
likenesse of catts, others in the likenesse of bees, and some in their owne
likenesse.'[908]

The method of making the ritual change by means of magical words is
recorded in the Auldearne trials, where Isobel Gowdie, whose evidence was
purely voluntary, gives the actual words both for the change into an animal
and for the reversion into human form. To become a hare:

'I sall goe intill ane haire,
With sorrow, and sych, and meikle caire,
And I sall goe in the Divellis nam,
Ay whill I com hom againe.'

To become a cat or a crow the same verse was used with an alteration of the
second line so as to force a rhyme; instead of 'meikle caire', the words
were 'a blak shot' for a cat, and 'a blak thraw' for a crow or craw. To
revert again to the human form the words were:

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