Apple Growing
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M. C. Burritt >> Apple Growing
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GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES
Baldwin Newtown
Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg
Northern Spy Jonathan
Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern
latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too
cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered
that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a
guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the
variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The
characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For
example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in
quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor
very poor, but midway between.
We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a
matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is
not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions
and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had
better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be
called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard.
The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who
desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult
Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment
Station.
CHAPTER III
PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD
The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution
of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a
good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly
to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems,
whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are
met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of
the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business
offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general
relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are
essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to
remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate
the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.
As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many
questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom
shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use
fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should
the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What
arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be
prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are
planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should
the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful
orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.
WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less
important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it
is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be
planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young
trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter
injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct
advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well
established in the soil which enables them to start root growth
earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to
endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and
there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than
in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to
get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because
most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.
Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is
the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting
immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted
trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature
which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New
York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites
winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time
must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on
others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient
time, providing the conditions are favorable.
WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down.
Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of
the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who
has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost
any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only,
that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a
well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order
subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as
represented.
The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with
whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can
personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have
an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight,
secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and
get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away
from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern
latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.
All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when
the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick
of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the
bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at
least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree
is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent
training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an
expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred,
but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year
old seedling.
The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting
trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on
purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their
varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should
demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety
planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings
imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted
which is equally as good a method of propagation.
It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings,
but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer,
as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires
considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often
equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of
crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of
being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds
are seldom worth considering at any price.
FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use
fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's
opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but
we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for
himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in
the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the
space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet
in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in
larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages.
(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand,
objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that
they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their
care often requires different operations and at different times from
the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the
permanent trees in the orchard.
Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important
characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should
come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are
available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or
standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and
plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be
dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely
proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more
difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few
advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are
advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.
The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make
excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing
quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are
adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates
and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in
more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early
bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.
On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in
the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this
nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off
several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent
management the objections to their use are easily overcome.
SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting
depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees
may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some
varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in
size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard
apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or
farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and
Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six
feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies
represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes
fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences
the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is
necessary to set them.
Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more
upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in
this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond
the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good
average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this
space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best,
as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close
enough for any standard variety.
RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees
will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an
acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common
method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method,
e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at
right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay
out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making
mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle
corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular
rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards
set on this plan.
A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable,
especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of
the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and
the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet
when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This
plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an
acre.
HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees
which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular
system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any
other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees
equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral
triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially
to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and
culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after
this method without error, and it is open to the objection of
inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while
the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after
this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows
(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually
much closer together.
The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level
field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires
the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field
where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way
through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best,
about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required
for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this
plan.
_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first
tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning
the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right
angles to each other.
_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field,
set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance
apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the
fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the
field.
_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other
the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field.
These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used
to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of
the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the
entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands
where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the
sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal
distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.
On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more
simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn
with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well
for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good
advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral
triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on
small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid.
Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point
where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates
the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about
six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them
at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then
swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the
tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake
did.
The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at
different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the
hexagonal method.
Sq. Hex. Sq. Hex.
12 x 12 302 344 24 x 24 75 80
12 x 15 242 ... 24 x 30 60 ..
15 x 15 193 224 30 x 30 48 56
15 x 18 161 ... 30 x 36 40 ..
15 x 20 145 ... 33 x 33 40 46
15 x 30 96 ... 30 x 48 30 ..
18 x 18 134 156 30 x 60 24 ..
18 x 20 121 ... 36 x 36 33 39
20 x 20 108 124 40 x 40 27 31
20 x 30 72 ... 40 x 50 21 ..
It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from
four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the
trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of
this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between
the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the
trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the
number.
PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil
for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation
of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime
condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up,
cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the
best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be
done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by
setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland.
Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich
soil.
The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees
should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing,
thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of
manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means
of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover.
Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand
pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same
time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a
good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the
heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the
fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always
be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is
decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is
frequently advisable.
INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one
to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very
injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to
be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be
inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we
should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain
facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the
subject.
Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between
the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land
and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely
no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of
itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken
down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped
this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.
The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring
cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the
season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small
vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the
young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much.
Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come
up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too
much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help
to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used.
After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory
orchard crop in some cases.
A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when
a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space
should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year
and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to
four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author
very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use
in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year,
beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year,
potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring,
followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a
good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying
crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and
at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of
the summer.
Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have
already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention
directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until
spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops
cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in
transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This
will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth.
From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which
to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young
apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and
remove crossing or interfering branches.
Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be
the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more
important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard
in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees,
leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At
Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall,
using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding
it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good
protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are
prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the
trees in addition to this.
CHAPTER IV
PRUNING THE TREES
Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first
thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature
accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by
starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In
the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each
individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of
many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach
maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too
expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife
and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and
competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's
method.
Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing
process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually
increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical
experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and
advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done.
As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and
should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning
becomes a more simple matter.
Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the
growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way
pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and
tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this
fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On
the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the
growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back
a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.
The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some
varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate
and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit
of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old
age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its
uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth
checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the
development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree
soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.
Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and
carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use
to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction
above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a
lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely
thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced
the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually
results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by
an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or
injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or
readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.
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