Handbook of the Trees of New England

L >> Lorin Low Dame >> Handbook of the Trees of New England

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=Habit.=--Shrub or small tree, usually 3-8 feet high, but frequently
reaching a height of 15-25 feet; trunk short, sometimes in peaty swamps
10-13 inches in diameter near the ground, branches much contorted,
throwing out numerous branchlets of similar habit, forming a stiff,
flattish head; beautiful for a brief week in spring by the delicate
greens and reds of the opening leaves and reds and yellows of the
numerous catkins. Sometimes associated with _Q. prinoides_.

=Bark.=--Old trunks dark gray, with small, closely appressed scales;
small trunks and branches grayish-brown, not furrowed or scaly; younger
branches marked with pale yellow, raised dots; season's shoots
yellowish-green, with a tawny, scurfy pubescence.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds 1/8-1/4 inch long, ovoid or conical,
covered with imbricated, brownish, minutely ciliate scales. Leaves
simple, alternate, 3-4 inches long and 2-3 inches broad; when unfolding
reddish above and woolly on both sides, when mature yellowish-green and
somewhat glossy above, smooth except on the midrib, rusty-white, and
pubescent beneath; very variable in outline and in the number (3-7) and
shape of lobes, sometimes entire, oftenest obovate with 5 bristle-tipped
angular lobes, the two lower much smaller; base unequal, wedge-shaped,
tip obtuse or rounded; leafstalk short; stipules linear, soon falling.

=Inflorescence.=--Early in May. Appearing when the leaves are half
grown; sterile catkins 2-4 inches long; calyx pubescent, lobes oftenest
2-3, rounded; stamens 3-5; anthers red or yellow: pistillate flowers
numerous; calyx lobes ovate, pointed, reddish, pubescent; stigmas 3,
reddish, recurved, spreading.

=Fruit.=--Abundant, maturing in the autumn of the second year, clustered
along the branchlets on stout, short stems: cup top-shaped or
hemispherical: acorn about 1/2 inch long, varying greatly in shape,
mostly ovoid or spherical, brown, often striped lengthwise.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy in New England; grows well in dry,
gravelly, ledgy, or sandy soil, where few other trees thrive; useful in
such situations where a low growth is required; but as it is not
procurable in quantity from nurseries, it must be grown from the seed.
The leaves are at times stripped off by caterpillars, but otherwise it
is not seriously affected by insects or fungous diseases.

[Illustration: PLATE XLVII.--Quercus ilicifolia.]

1. Flowering branch.
2. Sterile flower, side view.
3. Fertile flowers, side view.
4. Fruiting branch.
5. Variant leaves.

ULMACEAE. ELM FAMILY.

=Ulmus Americana, L.=

ELM. AMERICAN ELM. WHITE ELM.

=Habitat and Range.=--Low, moist ground; thrives especially on rich
intervales.

From Cape Breton to Saskatchewan, as far north as 54 deg. 30'.

Maine,--common, most abundant in central and southern portions; New
Hampshire,--common from the southern base of the White mountains to the
sea; in the remaining New England states very common, attaining its
highest development in the rich alluvium of the Connecticut river
valley.

South to Florida; west to Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas.

=Habit.=--In the fullness of its vigor the American elm is the most
stately and graceful of the New England trees, 50-110 feet high and 1-8
feet in diameter above the swell of the roots; characterized by an
erect, more or less feathered or naked trunk, which loses itself
completely in the branches, by arching limbs, drooping branchlets set at
a wide angle, and by a spreading head widest near the top. Modifications
of these elements give rise to various well-marked forms which have
received popular names.

1. In the vase-shaped tree, which is usually regarded as the type, the
trunk separates into several large branches which rise, slowly
diverging, 40-50 feet, and then sweep outward in wide arches, the
smaller branches and spray becoming pendent.

2. In the umbrella form the trunk remains entire nearly to the top of
the tree, when the branches spread out abruptly, forming a broad,
shallow arch, fringed at the circumference with long, drooping
branchlets.

3. The slender trunk of the plume elm rises, usually undivided, a
considerable height, begins to curve midway, and is capped with a
one-sided tuft of branches and delicate, elongated branchlets.

4. The drooping elm differs from the type in the height of the arch and
greater droop of the branches, which sometimes sweep the ground.

5. In the oak form the limbs are more or less tortuous and less arching,
forming a wide-spreading, rounded head.

In all forms short, irregular, pendent branchlets are occasional along
the trunks. The trees most noticeably feathered are usually of medium
size, and have few large branches, the superfluous vitality manifesting
itself in a copious fringe, which sometimes invests and obliterates the
great pillars which support the masses of foliage. Conspicuous at all
seasons of the year,--in spring when its brown buds are swollen to
bursting, or when the myriads of flowers, insignificant singly, give in
the sunlight an atmosphere of purplish-brown; when clothed with light,
airy masses of deep green in summer or pale yellow in autumn, or in
winter when the great trunk and mighty sweep of the arching branches
distinguish it from all other trees. The roots lie near the surface and
run a great distance.

=Bark.=--Dark gray, irregularly and broadly striate, rather firmly
ridged, in very old trees sometimes partially detached in plates;
branches ash-gray, smooth; branchlets reddish-brown; season's shoots
often pubescent, light brown in late fall.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds ovate, brown, flattened, obtuse to
acute, smooth. Leaves simple, alternate, 2-5 inches long, 2-3 inches
wide, dark green and roughish above, lighter and downy at first beneath;
outline ovate or oval to obovate-oblong, sharply and usually doubly
serrate; apex abruptly pointed; base half acute, half rounded, produced
on one side, often slightly heart-shaped or obtuse; veins straight and
prominent; leafstalk stout, short; stipules small, soon falling. Leaves
drop in early autumn.

=Inflorescence.=--April. In loose lateral clusters along the preceding
season's shoots; flowers brown or purplish, mostly perfect, with
occasional sterile and fertile on the same tree; stems slender; calyx
7-9-lobed, hairy or smooth; stamens 7-9, filaments slender, anthers
exserted, brownish-red; ovary flat, green, ciliate; styles 2.

=Fruit.=--Ripening in May, before the leaves are fully grown, a samara,
1/2 inch in diameter, oval or ovate, smooth on both sides, hairy on
the edge, the notch in the margin closed or partially closed by the two
incurved points.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy throughout New England; grows in any soil,
but prefers a deep, rich loam; the ideal street tree with its high,
overarching branches and moderate shade; grows rapidly, throws out few
low branches, bears pruning well; now so seriously affected by numerous
insect enemies that it is not planted as freely as heretofore;
objectionable on the borders of gardens or mowing land, as the roots run
along near the surface for a great distance. Very largely grown in
nurseries, usually from seed, sometimes from small collected plants.
Though so extremely variable in outline, there are no important
horticultural forms in cultivation.

[Illustration: PLATE XLVIII.--Ulmus Americana.]

1. Winter buds.
2. Flowering branch.
3. Flower, side view.
4. Fruiting branch.
5. Mature leaf.

=Ulmus fulva, Michx.=

_Ulmus pubescens, Walt._

SLIPPERY ELM. RED ELM.

=Habitat and Range.=--Rich, low grounds, low, rocky woods and hillsides.

Valley of the St. Lawrence, apparently not abundant.

Maine,--District of Maine (Michaux, _Sylva of North America_, ed. 1853,
III, 53), rare; Waterborough (York county, Chamberlain, 1898); New
Hampshire,--valley of the Connecticut, usually disappearing within ten
miles of the river; ranges as far north as the mouth of the Passumpsic;
Vermont,--frequent; Massachusetts,--rare in the eastern sections,
frequent westward; Rhode Island.--infrequent; Connecticut,--occasional.

South to Florida; west to North Dakota and Texas.

=Habit.=--A small or medium-sized tree, 40-60 feet high, with a trunk
diameter of 1-2-1/2 feet; head in proportion to the height of the tree,
the widest spreading of the species, characterized by its dark, hairy
buds and rusty-green, dense and rough foliage.

=Bark.=--Bark of trunk brown and in old trees deeply furrowed; larger
branches grayish-brown, somewhat striate; branchlets grayish-brown,
rough, marked with numerous dots, downy; season's shoots light gray and
very rough; inner bark mucilaginous, hence the name "slippery elm."

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds ovate to rounded-cylindrical, acute or
obtuse, very dark, densely tomentose, very conspicuous just before
unfolding. Leaves simple, alternate, 4-8 inches long, 3-4 inches wide,
thickish, minutely hairy above and woolly beneath when young, at
maturity pale rusty-green and very rough both ways upon the upper
surface, scarcely less beneath, rough and hairy along the ribs;
sweet-scented when dried; outline oblong, ovate-oblong, or oval, doubly
serrate; apex acuminate; base more or less heart-shaped or obtuse,
inequilateral; leafstalk short, rough, hairy; stipules small, soon
falling.

=Inflorescence.=--March to April. Preceding the leaves, from the lateral
buds of the preceding season, in clusters of nearly sessile, purplish
flowers; sterile, fertile, and perfect on the same tree; calyx
5-9-lobed, downy; corolla none; stamens 5-9, anthers dark red; ovary
flattened; styles two, purple, downy.

=Fruit.=--A samara, winged all round, 3/4 inch in diameter, roundish,
pubescent over the seed, not fringed, larger than the fruit of _U.
Americana_.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy throughout New England; does well in
various situations, but prefers a light, sandy or gravelly soil near
running water; grows more rapidly than _U. Americana_, and is less
liable to the attacks of insects; its large foliage and graceful outline
make it worthy of a place in ornamental plantations. Propagated from
seed.

[Illustration: PLATE XLIX.--Ulmus fulva.]

1. Winter buds.
2. Flowering branch,
3. Flower, top view.
4. Flower, side view, part of perianth and stamens removed.
5. Pistil.
6. Fruiting branch.

=Ulmus racemosa, Thomas.=

CORK ELM. ROCK ELM.

=Habitat and Range.=--Dry, gravelly soils, rich soils, river banks.

Quebec through Ontario.

Maine,--not reported; New Hampshire,--rare and extremely local; Meriden
and one or two other places (Jessup); Vermont,--rare, Bennington, Pownal
(Robbins), Knowlton (Brainerd), Highgate (Eggleston); comparatively
abundant in Champlain valley and westward (T. H. Haskins, _Garden and
Forest_, V, 86); Massachusetts,--rare; Rhode Island and
Connecticut,--not reported native.

South to Tennessee; west to Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska and Missouri.

=Habit.=--A large tree, scarcely inferior at its best to _U. Americana_,
50-75 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2-3 feet; reaching in southern
Michigan a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 5 feet; trunk rather
slender; branches short and stout, often twiggy in the interior of the
tree; branchlets slender, spreading, sometimes with a drooping tendency;
head rather narrow, round-topped.

=Bark.=--Bark of trunk brownish-gray, in old trees irregularly separated
into deep, wide, flat-topped ridges; branches grayish-brown; leaf-scars
conspicuous; season's shoots light brown, more or less pubescent or
glabrous, oblong-dotted; branches and branchlets often marked lengthwise
with corky, wing-like ridges.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds ovate to oblong, pointed, scales
downy-ciliate, pubescent. Leaves simple, alternate, 3-4 inches long,
half as wide, glabrous above, minutely pubescent beneath; outline ovate,
doubly serrate (less sharp than the serratures in _U. Americana_); apex
acuminate; base inequilateral, produced and rounded on one side, acute
or slightly rounded on the other; veins straight; leafstalk short,
stout; stipules soon falling.

=Inflorescence.=--April to May. Appearing before the leaves from lateral
buds of the preceding season, in drooping racemes; calyx lobes 7-8,
broad-triangular, with rounded edges and a mostly obtuse apex: pedicels
thread-like, jointed; stamens 5-10, exserted, anthers purple, ovary
2-styled: stigmas recurved or spreading.

=Fruit.=--Samara ovate, broadly oval, or obovate, pubescent, margin
densely fringed, resembling fruit of _U. Americana_ but somewhat larger.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy throughout New England; prefers a moist,
rich soil, in open situations; less variable in habit than the American
elm and a smaller tree with smaller foliage, scarcely varying enough to
justify its extensive use as a substitute. Not often obtainable in
nurseries, but readily transplanted, and easily propagated from the
seed.

[Illustration: PLATE L.--Ulmus racemosa.]

1. Winter buds, at the time the flowers open.
2. Flowering branch.
3. Flower, side view.
4. Flower, side view, perianth and stamens partly removed.
5. Fruiting branch.

CELTIS OCCIDENTALIS, L.

HACKBERRY. NETTLE TREE. HOOP ASH. SUGAR BERRY.

=Habitat and Range.=--In divers situations and soils; woods, river
banks, near salt marshes.

Province of Quebec to Lake of the Woods, occasional.

Maine,--not reported; New Hampshire,--sparingly along the Connecticut
valley, as far as Wells river; Vermont,--along Lake Champlain, not
common; Norwich and Windsor on the Connecticut (Eggleston);
Massachusetts,--occasional throughout the state; Rhode Island,--common
(Bailey); Connecticut,--common (J. N. Bishop).

South to the Gulf states; west to Minnesota and Missouri.

=Habit.=--A small or medium-sized tree, 20-45 feet high, with a trunk
diameter of 8 inches to 2 feet; attaining farther south a maximum of 100
feet in height, with a trunk diameter of 4-6 feet; variable; most
commonly the rough, straight trunk, sometimes buttressed at the base,
branches a few feet from the ground, sending out a few large limbs and
numerous slender, horizontal or slightly drooping and more or less
tortuous branches; head wide-spreading, flattish or often rounded, with
deep green foliage which lasts into late autumn with little change in
color, and with cherry-like fruit which holds on till the next spring.

=Bark.=--Bark of trunk in young trees grayish, rough, unbroken, in old
trees with deep, short ridges; main branches corrugated; secondary
branches close and even; branchlets pubescent; season's shoots
reddish-brown, often downy, more or less shining.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds small, ovate, acute, scales chestnut
brown. Leaves simple, alternate, extremely variable in size, outline,
and texture, usually 2-4 inches long, two-thirds as wide, thin, deep
green, and scarcely rough above, more or less pubescent beneath, with
numerous and prominent veins, outline ovate to ovate-lanceolate, sharply
serrate above the lower third; apex usually narrowly and sharply
acuminate; base acutish, inequilateral, 3-nerved, entire; leafstalk
slender; stipules lanceolate, soon falling.

=Inflorescence.=--May. Appearing with the leaves from the axils of the
season's shoots, sterile and fertile flowers usually separate on the
same tree; flowers slender-stemmed, the sterile in clusters at the base
of the shoot, the fertile in the axils above, usually solitary; calyx
greenish, segments oblong; stamens 4-6, in the fertile flowers about the
length of the 4 lobes, in the sterile exserted; ovary with two long,
recurved stigmas.

=Fruit.=--Drupes, on long slender stems, globular, about the size of the
fruit of the wild red cherry, purplish-red when ripe, thin-meated,
edible, lasting through the winter.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy throughout New England; grows in all
well-drained soils, but prefers a deep, rich, moist loam. Young trees
grow rather slowly and are more or less distorted, and trees of the same
age often vary considerably in size and habit; hence it is not a
desirable street tree, but it appears well in ornamental grounds. A
disease which seriously disfigures the tree is extending to New England,
and the leaves are sometimes attacked by insects. Occasionally offered
by nurserymen and easily transplanted.

[Illustration: PLATE LI.--Celtis occidentalis.]

1. Winter buds.
2. Flowering branch.
3. Sterile flower.
4. Fertile flower.
5. Fruiting branch.

MORACEAE. MULBERRY FAMILY.

=Morus rubra, L.=

MULBERRY.

=Habitat and Range.=--Banks of rivers, rich woods.

Canadian shore of Lake Erie.

A rare tree in New England. Maine,--doubtfully reported; New
Hampshire,--Pemigewasset valley, White mountains (Matthews);
Vermont,--northern extremity of Lake Champlain, banks of the Connecticut
(Flagg), Pownal (Oakes), North Pownal (Eggleston); Massachusetts,--rare;
Rhode Island,--no station reported; Connecticut,--rare; Bristol,
Plainville, North Guilford, East Rock and Norwich (J. N. Bishop).

South to Florida; west to Michigan, South Dakota, and Texas.

=Habit.=--A small tree, 15-25 feet in height, with a trunk diameter of
8-15 inches; attaining much greater dimensions in the Ohio and
Mississippi basins; a wide-branching, rounded tree, characterized by a
milky sap, rather dense foliage, and fruit closely resembling in shape
that of the high blackberry.

=Bark.=--Trunk light brown, rough, and more or less furrowed according
to age; larger branches light greenish-brown; season's shoots gray and
somewhat downy.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Buds ovate, obtuse. Leaves simple, alternate,
4-8 inches long, two-thirds as wide, rough above, yellowish-green and
densely pubescent when young; at maturity dark green and downy beneath,
turning yellow in autumn; conspicuously reticulated; outline variable,
ovate, obovate, oblong or broadly oval, serrate-dentate with equal
teeth, or irregularly 3-7-lobed; apex acuminate; base heart-shaped to
truncate; stalk 1-2 inches long; stipules linear, serrate, soon falling.

=Inflorescence.=--May. Appearing with the leaves from the season's
shoots, in axillary spikes, sterile and fertile flowers sometimes on the
same tree, sometimes on different trees,--sterile flowers in spreading
or pendulous spikes, about 1 inch long; calyx 4-parted; petals none;
stamens 4, the inflexed filaments of which suddenly straighten
themselves as the flower expands: fertile spikes spreading or pendent;
calyx 4-parted, becoming fleshy in fruit; ovary sessile; stigmas 2,
spreading.

=Fruit.=--July to August. In drooping spikes about 1 inch long and 1/2
inch in diameter; dark purplish-red, oblong, sweet and edible;
apparently a simple fruit but really made up of the thickened calyx
lobes of the spike.

=Horticultural Value.=--Hardy in southern New England; grows rapidly in
a good, moist soil in sun or shade; the large leaves start late and drop
early; useful where it is hardy, in low tree plantations or as an
undergrowth in woods; readily transplanted, but seldom offered for sale
by nurserymen or collectors; propagated from seed.

[Illustration: PLATE LII.--Morus rubra.]

1. Winter buds.
2. Branch with sterile flowers.
3. Sterile flower with stamens incurved.
4. Sterile flower expanded.
5. Branch with fertile flowers.
6. Fertile flower, side view.
7. Fruiting branch.

=Morus alba, L.=

Probably a native of China, where its leaves have from time immemorial
furnished food for silkworms; extensively introduced and naturalized in
India and central and southern Europe; introduced likewise into the
United States and Canada from Ontario to Florida; occasionally
spontaneous near dwellings, old trees sometimes marking the sites of
houses that have long since disappeared.

It may be distinguished from _M. rubra_ by its smooth, shining leaves,
its whitish or pinkish fruit, and its greater susceptibility to frost.

MAGNOLIACEAE. MAGNOLIA FAMILY.

=Liriodendron Tulipifera, L.=

TULIP TREE. WHITEWOOD. POPLAR.

=Habitat and Range.=--Prefers a rich, loamy, moist soil.

Vermont,--valley of the Hoosac river in the southwestern corner of the
state; Massachusetts,--frequent in the Connecticut river valley and
westward; reported as far east as Douglas, southeastern corner of
Worcester county (R. M. Harper, _Rhodora_, II, 122); Rhode Island and
Connecticut,--frequent, especially in the central and southern portions
of the latter state.

South to the Gulf states; west to Wisconsin; occasional in the
eastern sections of Missouri and Arkansas; attains great size in
the basins of the Ohio and its tributaries, and southward along the
Mississippi river bottoms.

=Habit.=--A medium-sized tree, 50-70 feet high; trunk 2-3 feet in
diameter, straight, cylindrical; head rather open, more or less
cone-shaped, in the dense forest lifted high and spreading; branches
small for the size of the tree, set at varying angles, often decurrent,
becoming scraggly with age. The shapely trunk, erect, showy blossoms,
green, cone-like fruit, and conspicuous bright green truncate leaves
give the tulip tree an air of peculiar distinction.

=Bark.=--Bark of trunk ashen-gray and smoothish in young trees, becoming
at length dark, seamed, and furrowed; the older branches gray; the
season's shoots of a shining chestnut, with minute dots and conspicuous
leaf-scars; glabrous or dusty-pubescent; bark of roots pale brown,
fleshy, with an agreeable aromatic smell and pungent taste.

=Winter Buds and Leaves.=--Terminal buds 1/2-1 inch long; narrow-oblong;
flattish; covered by two chestnut-brown dotted scales, which persist as
appendages at the base of the leafstalk, often enclosing several leaves
which develop one after the other. Leaves simple, alternate, lobed; 3-5
inches long and nearly as broad, dark green and smooth on the upper
surface, lighter, with minute dusty pubescence beneath, becoming yellow
and russet brown in autumn; usually with four rounded or pointed lobes,
the two upper abruptly cut off at the apex, and separated by a slight
indentation or notch more or less broad and shallow at the top; all the
lobes entire, or 2-3 sublobed, or coarsely toothed; base truncate, acute
or heart-shaped; leafstalks as long or longer than the blade, slender,
enlarged at the base; stipules 1-2 inches long, pale yellow, oblong,
often persisting till the leaf is fully developed.

=Inflorescence.=--Late May or early June. Flowers conspicuous, solitary,
terminal, held erect by a stout stem, tulip-shaped, 1-1/2-2 inches long,
opening at the top about 2 inches. There are two triangular bracts which
fall as the flower opens; three greenish, concave sepals, at length
reflexed; six greenish-yellow petals with an orange spot near the base
of each; numerous stamens somewhat shorter than the petals; and pistils
clinging together about a central axis.

=Fruit.=--Cone-like, formed of numerous carpels, often abortive, which
fall away from the axis at maturity; each long, flat carpel encloses in
the cavity at its base one or two orange seeds which hang out for a time
on flexible, silk-like threads.

=Horticultural Value.=--An ornamental tree of great merit; hardy except
in the coldest parts of New England; difficult to transplant, but
growing rapidly when established; comes into leaf rather early and holds
its foliage till mid-fall, shedding it in a short time when mature;
adapts itself readily to good, light soils, but grows best in moist
loam. It has few disfiguring insect enemies. Mostly propagated by seed,
but sometimes successfully collected; for sale in the leading nurseries
and usually obtainable in large quantities. Of abnormal forms offered by
nurserymen, one has an upright habit approaching that of the Lombardy
poplar; another has variegated leaves, and another leaves without lobes.

[Illustration: PLATE LIII.--Liriodendron Tulipifera.]

1. Winter bud, terminal.
2. Opening leaf-bud with stipules.
3. Flowering branch.
4. Fruit.
5. Fruit with many carpels removed.
6. Carpel with seeds.

LAURACEAE. LAUREL FAMILY.

=Sassafras officinale, Nees.=

_Sassafras Sassafras, Karst._

SASSAFRAS.

=Habitat and Range.=--In various soils and situations; sandy or rich
woods, along the borders of peaty swamps.

Provinces of Quebec and Ontario.

Maine,--this tree grows not beyond Black Point (Scarboro, Cumberland
county) eastward (Josselyn's _New England Rarities_, 1672); not reported
again by botanists for more than two hundred years; rediscovered at
Wells in 1895 (Walter Deane) and North Berwick in 1896 (J. C. Parlin);
New Hampshire,--lower Merrimac valley, eastward to the coast and along
the Connecticut valley to Bellows Falls; Vermont,--occasional south of
the center; Pownal (Robbins, Eggleston); Hartland and Brattleboro
(Bates), Vernon (Grant); Massachusetts,--common especially in the
eastern sections; Rhode Island and Connecticut,--common.

South to Florida; west to Michigan, Iowa, Kansas, and Texas.

=Habit.=--Generally a shrub or small tree but sometimes reaching a
height of 40-50 feet and a trunk diameter of 2-4 feet; attaining a
maximum in the southern and southwestern states of 80-100 feet in height
and a trunk diameter of 6-7 feet; head open, flattish or rounded;
branches at varying angles, stout, crooked, and irregular; spray bushy;
marked in winter by the contrasting reddish-brown of the trunk, the
bright yellowish-green of the shoots and the prominent flower-buds, in
early spring by the drooping racemes of yellow flowers, in autumn by the
rich yellow or red-tinted foliage and handsome fruit, at all seasons by
the aromatic odor and spicy flavor of all parts of the tree, especially
the bark of the root.

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