The Measurement of Intelligence

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The essential distinction, accordingly, is that _evolution means
a gradual, natural, or slow change, while revolution means a
sudden, forced, or violent change_. Non-contrasting definitions,
even when the individual terms are defined correctly, are not
satisfactory.

(c) _Poverty and misery._ "Poverty is when you are poor;
misery means suffering." "Only the poor are in poverty, but
everybody can be miserable." "Poverty is the lowest stage of
poorness; misery means pain." "The poor are not always
miserable, and the rich are miserable sometimes." "Poverty means
to be in want; misery comes from any kind of suffering or
anguish." "The poor are in poverty; the sick are in misery."
"Poverty is the condition of being very poor financially; misery
is a feeling which any class of people can have." "One who is
poor is in poverty; one who is wretched or doesn't enjoy life is
in misery." "Poverty comes from lack of money; misery, from lack
of happiness or comfort." "Misery means distress. It can come
from poverty or many other things."

(d) _Character and reputation._ "Character is what you are;
reputation is what people say about you." "You have character if
you are honest; but you might be honest and still have a bad
reputation among people who misjudge you." "Character is your
real self; reputation is the opinion people have about you."
"Your character depends upon yourself; reputation depends on
what others think of you." "Character means your real morals;
reputation is the way you are known in the world." "A man has a
good character if he would not do evil; but a man may have a
good reputation and still have a bad character."

A little practice and a good deal of discrimination are necessary for
the correct grading of responses to this test. Subjects are often so
clumsy in expression that their responses are anything but clear. It is
then necessary to ask them to explain what they mean. Further
questioning, however, is not permissible. For uniformity in scoring it
is necessary to bear in mind that the definitions given must, in order
to be satisfactory, express the essential distinction between the two
words.

REMARKS. What we have said regarding the psychological significance of
test 2, year XII, applies equally well here. The test on the whole is a
valuable one. Our statistics show that it is not, as some critics have
thought, mainly a test of schooling.

The main criticism to be made is that it imposes a somewhat difficult
task upon the power of language expression. For this reason it is
necessary in scoring to disregard clumsiness of expression and to look
only to the essential correctness or incorrectness of the thought.

This test first appeared in year XIII of Binet's 1908 scale. The terms
used were "happiness and honor"; "evolution and revolution"; "event and
advent"; "poverty and misery"; "pride and pretension." In the 1911
revision, "happiness and honor" and "pride and pretension" were dropped,
and the other three pairs were moved up to the adult group, two out of
three successes being required for a pass. Kuhlmann places it in
year XV, using "happiness and honor" instead of our "character and
reputation," and requires three successes out of five.

AVERAGE ADULT, 4: PROBLEM OF THE ENCLOSED BOXES

PROCEDURE. Show the subject a cardboard box about one inch on a side.
Say: "_You see this box; it has two smaller boxes inside of it, and each
one of the smaller boxes contains a little tiny box. How many boxes are
there altogether, counting the big one?_" To be sure that the subject
understands repeat the statement of the problem: "_First the large box,
then two smaller ones, and each of the smaller ones contains a little
tiny box._"

Record the response, and, showing another box, say: "_This box has two
smaller boxes inside, and each of the smaller boxes contains two tiny
boxes. How many altogether? Remember, first the large box, then two
smaller ones, and each smaller one contains two tiny boxes._"

The third problem, which is given in the same way, states that there are
_three_ smaller boxes, each of which contains _three_ tiny boxes.

In the fourth problem there are _four_ smaller boxes, each containing
_four_ tiny boxes.

The problem must be given orally, and the solution must be found without
the aid of pencil or paper. Only one half-minute is allowed for each
problem. Note that each problem is stated twice.

A correction is permitted, provided it is offered spontaneously and does
not seem to be the result of guessing. Guessing can be checked up by
asking the subject to explain the solution.

SCORING. _Three of the four_ problems must be solved correctly within
the half-minute allotted to each.

REMARKS. Success depends, in the first place, upon ability to comprehend
the statement of the problem and to hold its conditions in mind.
Subjects much below the 12-year level of intelligence are often unable
to do this.

Granting that the problem has been comprehended, success seems to depend
chiefly upon the facility with which the constructive imagination
manipulates concrete visual imagery. In this respect it resembles the
problem of reversing the hands of a clock. With some subjects, however,
verbal imagery alone is operative. Tactual imagery would, of course,
serve the purpose as well.

This is as good a place as any to emphasize the fact that the
introspective study of mental imagery has little to contribute to the
measurement of intelligence. Intelligence tests are concerned with the
total result of a thought process, rather than with the imagery supports
of that process. Thought may be carried on almost equally well by
various kinds of imagery. As Galton showed, a person can be taught to
carry on arithmetical processes by the use of smell imagery. The kind of
imagery employed is the product of slight, innate preferences
complicated by the more or less accidental effects of habit.

We may say that imagery is to thinking what scaffolding is to
architecture. The important thing is the completed building rather than
the nature of the scaffolding employed in erecting it. No one thinks of
blaming the ill construction of a building upon the kind of scaffolding
used, for if the architect and builder are competent satisfactory
scaffolding will be found. Just as little are deficiencies or
peculiarities of imagery the real cause of low-order intelligence. We
cannot increase intelligence by formal drill in the use of supposedly
important kinds of mental imagery, any more than we can transform a
plain carpenter into a Michael Angelo by instructing him in the use of
scaffolding materials such as were employed in the construction of St.
Peter's Cathedral.

This test is of our own invention and has been brought to its present
form only after a good deal of preliminary experimentation. It
correlates fairly well with mental age as determined by the scale as a
whole. It was passed by 55 per cent of high-school pupils and by
65 per cent of unschooled business men. Success in it is thus seen not
to depend upon schooling.

AVERAGE ADULT, 5: REPEATING SIX DIGITS REVERSED

The series used are: 4-7-1-9-5-2; 5-8-3-2-9-4; and 7-5-2-6-3-8.

PROCEDURE and SCORING, as in year VII, alternative 2.

REMARKS. The test is passed by approximately half of "average adults"
and by three fourths of "superior adults." It shows no effect of
schooling, the uneducated business men even surpassing our high-school
students.

For the higher levels of intelligence, especially, the test is superior
to that of repeating digits in the direct order. It is less mechanical
and makes heavier demands upon higher intelligence.

AVERAGE ADULT, 6: USING A CODE

PROCEDURE. Show the subject the code given on the accompanying form.
Say: "_See these diagrams here. Look and you will see that they contain
all the letters of the alphabet. Now, examine the arrangement of the
letters. They go_ (pointing) _a b c, d e f, g h i, j k l, m n o, p q r,
s t u v, w x y z. You see the letters in the first two diagrams are
arranged in the up-and-down order_ (pointing again), _and the letters in
the other two diagrams run in just the opposite way from the hands of a
clock_ (pointing). _Look again and you will see that the second diagram
is drawn just like the first, except that each letter has a dot with it,
and that the last diagram is like the third except that here, also, each
letter has a dot. Now, all of this represents a code; that is, a secret
language. It is a real code, one that was used in the Civil War for
sending secret messages. This is the way it works: we draw the lines
which hold a letter, but leave out the letter. Here, for example, is the
way we would write 'spy?'_" Then write the word _spy_, pointing out
carefully where each letter comes from, and emphasizing the fact that
the dot must be used in addition to the lines in writing any letter in
the second or the fourth diagram. Illustrate also with _war_.

Then add: "_I am going to have you write something for me; remember now,
how the letters go, first_ (pointing, as before) _a b c, d e f, g h i,
then j k l, m n o, p q r, then s t u v, then w x y z. And don't forget
the dots for the letters in this diagram and this one_" (pointing). At
this point, take away the diagrams and tell the subject to write the
words _come quickly_. Say nothing about hurrying.

The subject is given a pencil, but is allowed to draw only the symbols
for the words _come quickly_. He is not permitted to reproduce the
entire code and then to copy the code letters from his reproduction.

SCORING. The test is passed if the words are written in _six minutes and
without more than two errors_. Omission of a dot counts as only a half
error.

REMARKS. It is not easy to analyze the mental functions which contribute
to success in the code test. Contrary to what might be supposed, success
does not necessarily depend upon getting and retaining a visual picture
of the diagrams. Kinaesthetic imagery will answer the purpose just as
well, or the original visual impression may even be translated at once
into auditory-verbal imagery and remembered as such. The significance of
the test must be expressed in other terms than the kind of imagery it
may happen to bring into play.

Healy and Fernald describe the task of writing a code sentence without
copy as one which requires "close attention and steadiness of purpose."
They also emphasize the fact that the attention must be directed inward,
since there is no object of interest before the senses and since no
special stimulus to attention is offered by the experimenter.
Observations we have made on subjects during the test confirm this view
as to the factors involved.

That inability to remember the code as a whole is not a common cause of
failure is shown by the fact that subjects above 12-year intelligence
who have failed on the test are nearly always able to reproduce the
diagrams and insert the letters in their proper places. To give the code
form of a given letter without copy, however, makes a much heavier
demand on attention. Nearly all subjects find it necessary to trace the
code form, in imagination, from the beginning up to each letter whose
code form is sought. Subjects of superior intelligence, however,
sometimes hit upon the device of remembering the position of the
individual key letters e.g. (the first letter of each figure) from
which, as a base, any desired letter form may be quickly sought out.

The test correlates well with mental age, but for some reason not
apparent it is passed by a larger percentage of high-school pupils than
unschooled adults of the same mental level.

The code test was first described by Healy and Fernald in their "Tests
for Practical Mental Classification."[77] The authors gave no data,
however, which would indicate the mental level to which the test
belongs. Dr. Goddard incorporated it in year XV of his revision of the
Binet scale, but also fails to give statistics. The location given
the test in the Stanford revision is based on tests of nearly
500 individuals ranging from a mental level of 12 years to that of
"superior adult." It appears that the test is considerably more
difficult than most had thought it to be.

[77] _Psychological Review Monographs_ (1911), vol. XIII, no. 2, p. 51.

AVERAGE ADULT, ALTERNATIVE TEST 1: REPEATING TWENTY-EIGHT SYLLABLES

The sentences for this test are:--

(a) _Walter likes very much to go on visits to his grandmother,
because she always tells him many funny stories._
(b) _Yesterday I saw a pretty little dog in the street. It had
curly brown hair, short legs, and a long tail._

PROCEDURE. Exactly as in VI, 6. Emphasize that the sentence must be
repeated without a single change of any sort. Get attention before
giving each sentence.

SCORING. Passed _if one sentence is repeated without a single error_. In
VI and X we scored the response as satisfactory if one sentence was
repeated without error, or if two were repeated with not more than one
error each.

REMARKS. The test of repeating sentences is not as satisfactory in the
higher intelligence levels as in the lower. It is too mechanical to tax
very heavily the higher thought processes. It does, however, have a
certain correlation with intelligence. Contrary to what one would have
expected, uneducated adults of "average adult" intelligence surpassed
our high-school students of the same mental level.

Binet located this test in year XII of the 1908 series, but shifted it
to year XV in 1911. The American versions of the Binet scale have
usually retained it in year XII, though Goddard admits that the
sentences are somewhat too difficult for that year. Kuhlmann puts the
test in year XII, but reduces the sentences to twenty-four syllables and
permits one re-reading. We give only two trials and our sentences are
considerably more difficult. With the procedure and scoring we have
used, the test is rather easy for the "average adult" group, but a
little too hard for year XIV.

AVERAGE ADULT, ALTERNATIVE TEST 2: COMPREHENSION OF PHYSICAL RELATIONS

(a) _Problem regarding the path of a cannon ball_

PROCEDURE. Draw on a piece of paper a horizontal line six or eight
inches long. Above it, an inch or two, draw a short horizontal line
about an inch long and parallel to the first. Tell the subject that the
long line represents the perfectly level ground of a field, and that the
short line represents a cannon. Explain that the cannon is "_pointed
horizontally (on a level) and is fired across this perfectly level
field_." After it is clear that these conditions of the problem are
comprehended, we add: "_Now, suppose that this cannon is fired off and
that the ball comes to the ground at this point here_ (pointing to the
farther end of the line which represents the field). _Take this pencil
and draw a line which will show what path the cannon ball will take from
the time it leaves the mouth of the cannon till it strikes the ground._"

SCORING. There are four types of response: (1) A straight diagonal line
is drawn from the cannon's mouth to the point where the ball strikes.
(2) A straight line is drawn from the cannon's mouth running
horizontally until almost directly over the goal, at which point the
line drops almost or quite vertically. (3) The path from the cannon's
mouth first rises considerably from the horizontal, at an angle perhaps
of between ten to forty-five degrees, and finally describes a gradual
curve downward to the goal. (4) The line begins almost on a level and
drops more rapidly toward the end of its course.

Only the last is satisfactory. Of course, nothing like a mathematically
accurate solution of the problem is expected. It is sufficient if the
response belongs to the fourth type above instead of being absurd, as
the other types described are. Any one who has ever thrown stones should
have the data for such an approximate solution. Not a day of schooling
is necessary.

(b) _Problem as to the weight of a fish in water_

PROCEDURE. Say to the subject: "_You know, of course, that water holds
up a fish that is placed in it. Well, here is a problem. Suppose we have
a bucket which is partly full of water. We place the bucket on the
scales and find that with the water in it it weighs exactly 45 pounds.
Then we put a 5-pound fish into the bucket of water. Now, what will the
whole thing weigh?_"

SCORING. Many subjects even as low as 9- or 10-year intelligence will
answer promptly, "Why, 45 pounds and 5 pounds makes 50 pounds, of
course." But this is not sufficient. We proceed to ask, with serious
demeanor: "_How can this be correct, since the water itself holds up the
fish?_" The young subject who has answered so glibly now laughs
sheepishly and apologizes for his error, saying that he answered without
thinking, etc. This response is scored failure without further
questioning.

Other subjects, mostly above the 14-year level, adhere to the answer
"50 pounds," however strongly we urge the argument about the water
holding up the fish. In response to our question, "_How can that be the
case?_" it is sufficient if the subject replies that "The weight is
there just the same; the scales have to hold up the bucket and the
bucket has to hold up the water," or words to that effect. Only some
such response as this is satisfactory. If the subject keeps changing his
answer or says that he _thinks_ the weight would be 50 pounds, but is
not certain, the score is failure.

(c) _Difficulty of hitting a distant mark_

PROCEDURE. Say to the subject: "_You know, do you not, what it means
when they say a gun 'carries 100 yards'? It means that the bullet goes
that far before it drops to amount to anything._" All boys and most
girls more than a dozen years old understand this readily. If the
subject does not understand, we explain again what it means for a gun
"to carry" a given distance. When this part is clear, we proceed as
follows: "_Now, suppose a man is shooting at a mark about the size of a
quart can. His rifle carries perfectly more than 100 yards. With such a
gun is it any harder to hit the mark at 100 yards than it is at
50 yards?_" After the response is given, we ask the subject to explain.

SCORING. Simply to say that it would be easier at 50 yards is not
sufficient, nor can we pass the response which merely states that it is
"easier to aim" at 50 yards. The correct principle must be given, one
which shows the subject has appreciated the fact that a small deviation
from the "bull's-eye" at 50 yards, due to incorrect aim, becomes a
larger deviation at 100 yards. However, the subject is not required to
know that the deviation at 100 yards is exactly twice as great as at
50 yards. A certain amount of questioning is often necessary before we
can decide whether the subject has the correct principle in mind.

SCORING THE ENTIRE TEST. _Two of the three problems_ must be solved in
such a way as to satisfy the requirements above set forth.

REMARKS. These problems were devised by the writer. They yield
interesting results, when properly given, but are not without their
faults. Sometimes a very superior subject fails, while occasionally an
inferior subject unexpectedly succeeds. On the whole, however the test
correlates fairly well with mental age. At the 14-year level less than
50 per cent pass; of "average adults," from 60 to 75 per cent are
successful. Few "superior adults" fail.

The test as here given is little influenced by the formal instruction
given in the grades or the high school. In fact, 80 per cent of our
uneducated business men, as contrasted with 65 per cent of high-school
juniors and seniors, passed the test. Success probably depends in the
main upon previous interest in physical relationships and upon the
ability to understand phenomena of this kind which the subject has had
opportunity to observe.

It would be interesting to standardize a longer series of problems
designed to test a subject's comprehension of common physical
relationships. In the first few months of life a normal child learns
that objects unsupported fall to the ground. Later he learns that fire
burns; that birds fly in the air; that fish do not sink in the water;
that water does not run uphill; that it is easy to lift a leg or arm as
one lies prone in the water; that mud is thrown from a rotating wheel
(and always in the same direction); that a stone which is flying
through the air swiftly is more dangerous than one which is moving
slowly; that it is more dangerous to be run over by a train than by a
buggy; that it is hard to run against a strong wind; that cyclones blow
down trees and houses; that a rapidly moving train creates a stronger
wind than a slower train; that a feather falls through the air with less
speed than a stone; that a falling object gains momentum; that a heavy
moving object is harder to stop than a light object moving at the same
rate; that freezing water bursts pipes; that sounds sometimes give
echoes; that rainbows cannot be approached; that a lamp seems dim by
daylight; that by day the stars are not visible and the moon only barely
visible; that the headlights of an approaching automobile or train are
blinding; that if the room in which we are reading is badly lighted we
must hold the book nearer to the eyes; that running makes the heart beat
faster and increases the rate of breathing; that if we are cold we can
get warm by running; that whirling rapidly makes us dizzy; that heat or
exercise will cause perspiration, etc.

Although the causes of some of these phenomena are not understood even
by intelligent adults without some instruction, the facts themselves are
learned by the normal individual from his own experience. The higher the
mental level and the greater the curiosity, the more observant one is
about such matters and the more one learns. Many items of knowledge such
as we have mentioned could and should be standardized for various mental
levels. In devising tests of this kind we should, of course, have to
look out for the influences of formal instruction.

CHAPTER XX

INSTRUCTIONS FOR "SUPERIOR ADULT"

SUPERIOR ADULT, 1: VOCABULARY (SEVENTY-FIVE DEFINITIONS, 13,500 WORDS)

PROCEDURE and SCORING, as in previous vocabulary tests. At the "superior
adult" level seventy-five words should be known.

The test is passed by only one third of those at the "average adult"
level, but by about 90 per cent of "superior adults." Ability to pass
the test is relatively independent of the number of years the subject
has attended school, our business men showing even a higher percentage
of passes than high-school pupils.

SUPERIOR ADULT, 2: BINET'S PAPER-CUTTING TEST

PROCEDURE. Take a piece of paper about six inches square and say:
"_Watch carefully what I do. See, I fold the paper this way_ (folding it
once over in the middle), _then I fold it this way_ (folding it again in
the middle, but at right angles to the first fold). _Now, I will cut out
a notch right here_" (indicating). At this point take scissors and cut
out a small notch from the middle of the side which presents but one
edge. Throw the fragment which has been cut out into the waste-basket or
under the table. Leave the folded paper exposed to view, but pressed
flat against the table. Then give the subject a pencil and a second
sheet of paper like the one already used and say: "_Take this piece of
paper and make a drawing to show how the other sheet of paper would look
if it were unfolded. Draw lines to show the creases in the paper and
show what results from the cutting._"

The subject is not permitted to fold the second sheet, but must solve
the problem by the imagination unaided.

Note that we do not say, "_Draw the holes_," as this would inform the
subject that more than one hole is expected.

SCORING. The test is passed _if the creases in the paper are properly
represented, if the holes are drawn in the correct number, and if they
are located correctly_, that is, both on the same crease and each about
halfway between the center of the paper and the side. The shape of the
holes is disregarded.

Failure may be due to error as regards the creases or the number and
location of the holes, or it may involve any combination of the above
errors.

REMARKS. Success seems to depend upon constructive visual imagination.
The subject must first be able to construct in imagination the creases
which result from the folding, and secondly, to picture the effects of
the cutting as regards number of holes and their location. It appears
that a solution is seldom arrived at, even in the case of college
students, by logical mathematical thinking. Our unschooled subjects even
succeeded somewhat better than high-school and college students of the
same mental level.

Binet placed this test in year XIII of the 1908 scale, but shifted it to
the adult group in the 1911 revision. Goddard retains it in the adult
group, while Kuhlmann places it in year XV. There have also been certain
variations in the procedure employed. As given in the Stanford revision
the test is passed by hardly any subjects below the 14-year level, but
by about one third of "average adults" and by the large majority of
"superior adults."

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