Lewis C. Lockwood - "Mary S. Peake"

Susanna Moodie - "Life in the Backwoods"

John Hicklin - "The Ladies of Llangollen"

F. Scott Fitzgerald - "The Beautiful and Damned"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Measurement of Intelligence

L >> Lewis Madison Terman >> The Measurement of Intelligence




This is readily understandable when we consider the nature of abstract
meanings and the intellectual processes by which we arrive at them.
Unlike such words as _tree_, _house_, etc., the ideas they contain are
not the immediate result of perceptual processes, in which even childish
intelligence is adept, but are a refined and secondary product of
relationships between other ideas. They require the logical processes of
comparison, abstraction, and generalization. One cannot see justice, for
example, but one is often confronted with situations in which justice or
injustice is an element; and given a certain degree of abstraction and
generalization, out of such situations the idea of justice will
gradually be evolved.

The formation and use of abstract ideas, of one kind or another,
represent, _par excellence_, the "higher thought processes." It is not
without significance that delinquents who test near the border-line of
mental deficiency show such inferior ability in arriving at correct
generalizations regarding matters of social and moral relationships. We
cannot expect a mind of defective generalizing ability to form very
definite or correct notions about justice, law, fairness, ownership
rights, etc.; and if the ideas themselves are not fairly clear, the
rules of conduct based upon them cannot make a very powerful appeal.[69]

[69] See also p. 298 _ff._

Binet used the words _charity_, _justice_, and _kindness_, and required
two successes. In the 1911 revision he shifted the test from year XI to
year XII, where it more nearly belongs. Goddard also places it in
year XII and uses Binet's words, translating _bonte_, however, as
_goodness_ instead of _kindness_. Kuhlmann retains the test in year XI
and adds _bravery_ and _revenge_, requiring three correct definitions
out of five. Bobertag uses _pity_, _envy_, and _justice_, requires two
correct definitions, and finds the test just hard enough for year XII.

After using the words _goodness_ and _kindness_ in two series of tests,
we have discarded them as objectionable in that they give rise to so
many doubtful definitions. Even intelligent children often say:
"Goodness means to do something good," "Kindness means to be kind to
some one," etc. These definitions in a circle occur less than half as
often with _pity_, _revenge_, and _envy_, which are also superior to
_charity_ and _justice_ in this respect.

The relative difficulty of our five words is indicated by the order in
which we have listed them in the test (i.e., beginning with the easiest
and ending with the hardest). On the standard of three correct
definitions, these words fit very accurately in year XII.


XII, 3. THE BALL-AND-FIELD TEST (SUPERIOR PLAN)

PROCEDURE, as in year VIII, test 1.

SCORING. Score 3 (or superior plan) is required for passing in
year XII.[70]

[70] See scoring card.


XII, 4. DISSECTED SENTENCES

The following disarranged sentences are used:--

FOR THE STARTED AN WE COUNTRY EARLY AT HOUR

TO ASKED PAPER MY TEACHER CORRECT I MY

A DEFENDS DOG GOOD HIS BRAVELY MASTER

These should be printed in type like that used above. The Stanford
record booklet contains the sentences in convenient form.

It is not permissible to substitute written words or printed script, as
that would make the test harder. All the words should be printed in caps
in order that no clue shall be given as to the first word in a sentence.
For a similar reason the period is omitted.

PROCEDURE. Say: "_Here is a sentence that has the words all mixed up so
that they don't make any sense. If the words were changed around in the
right order they would make a good sentence. Look carefully and see if
you can tell me how the sentence ought to read._"

Give the sentences in the order in which they are listed in the record
booklet. Do not tell the subject to see how quickly he can do it,
because with this test any suggestion of hurrying is likely to produce a
kind of mental paralysis. If the subject has no success with the first
sentence in one minute, read it off correctly for him, somewhat slowly,
and pointing to each word as it is spoken. Then proceed to the second
and third, allowing one minute for each.

Give no further help. It is not permissible, in case an incorrect
response is given, to ask the subject to try again, or to say: "_Are you
sure that is right?_" "_Are you sure you have not left out any words?_"
etc. Instead, maintain absolute silence. However, the subject is
permitted to make as many changes in his response as he sees fit,
provided he makes them spontaneously and within the allotted time.
Record the entire response.

Once in a great while the subject misunderstands the task and thinks the
only requirement is to use all the words given, and that it is permitted
to add as many other words as he likes. It is then necessary to repeat
the instructions and to allow a new trial.

SCORING. _Two sentences out of three must be correctly given within the
minute allotted to each._ It is understood, of course, that if the first
sentence has to be read for the subject, both the other responses must
be given correctly.

A sentence is not counted correct if a single word is omitted, altered,
or inserted, or if the order given fails to make perfect sense.

Certain responses are not absolutely incorrect, but are objectionable as
regards sentence structure, or else fail to give the exact meaning
intended. These are given half credit. Full credit on one, and half
credit on each of the other two, is satisfactory. The following are
samples of satisfactory and unsatisfactory responses:--

(a)
_Satisfactory._
"We started for the country at an early hour."
"At an early hour we started for the country."
"We started at an early hour for the country."
_Unsatisfactory._
"We started early at an hour for the country."
"Early at an hour we started for the country."
"We started early for the country."
_Half credit._
"For the country at an early hour we started."
"For the country we started at an early hour."

(b)
_Satisfactory._
"I asked my teacher to correct my paper."
_Unsatisfactory._
"My teacher asked to correct my paper."
"To correct my paper I asked my teacher."
_Half credit._
"My teacher I asked to correct my paper."

(c)
_Satisfactory._
"A good dog defends his master bravely."
"A good dog bravely defends his master."
_Unsatisfactory._
"A dog defends his master bravely."
"A bravely dog defends his master."
"A good dog defends his bravely master."
"A good brave dog defends his master."
_Half credit._
"A dog defends his good master bravely."
"A dog bravely defends his good master."
"A good master bravely defends his dog."

REMARKS. This is an excellent test. It involves no knowledge which may
not be presupposed at the age in which it is given, and success
therefore depends very little on experience. The worst that can be urged
against it is that it may possibly be influenced to a certain extent by
the amount of reading the subject has done. But this has not been
demonstrated. At any rate, the test satisfies the most important
requirement of a test of intelligence; namely, the percentage of
successes increases rapidly and steadily from the lower to the higher
levels of mental age.

This experiment can be regarded as a variation of the completion test.
Binet tells us, in fact, that it was directly suggested by the
experiment of Ebbinghaus. As will readily be observed, however, it
differs to a certain extent from the Ebbinghaus completion test.
Ebbinghaus omits parts of a sentence and requires the subject to supply
the omissions. In this test we give all the parts and require the
formation of a sentence by rearrangement. The two experiments are
psychologically similar in that they require the subject to relate given
fragments into a meaningful whole. Success depends upon the ability of
intelligence to utilize hints, or clues, and this in turn depends on the
logical integrity of the associative processes. All but the highest
grade of the feeble-minded fail with this test.

This test is found in year XI of Binet's 1908 series and in year XII of
his 1911 revision. Goddard and Kuhlmann retain it in the original
location. That it is better placed in year XII is indicated by all the
available statistics with normal children, except those of Goddard. With
this exception, the results of various investigators for year XII are in
remarkably close agreement, as the following figures will show:--

_Per cent passing at year XII_

Binet 66
Kuhlmann 68
Bobertag 78
Dougherty 64
Strong 72
Leviste and Morle 70
Stanford series (1911) 62
Stanford series (1913) 57
Stanford series (1914) 62
Princeton data 61

This agreement is noteworthy considering that no two experiments seem to
have used exactly the same arrangement of words, and that some have
presented the words of a sentence in a single line, others in two or
three lines. A single line would appear to be somewhat easier.


XII, 5. INTERPRETATION OF FABLES (SCORE 4)

The following fables are used:--

(a) _Hercules and the Wagoner_

_A man was driving along a country road, when the wheels
suddenly sank in a deep rut. The man did nothing but look at the
wagon and call loudly to Hercules to come and help him. Hercules
came up, looked at the man, and said: "Put your shoulder to the
wheel, my man, and whip up your oxen." Then he went away and
left the driver._

(b) _The Milkmaid and her Plans_

_A milkmaid was carrying her pail of milk on her head, and was
thinking to herself thus: "The money for this milk will buy
4 hens; the hens will lay at least 100 eggs; the eggs will
produce at least 75 chicks; and with the money which the chicks
will bring I can buy a new dress to wear instead of the ragged
one I have on." At this moment she looked down at herself,
trying to think how she would look in her new dress; but as she
did so the pail of milk slipped from her head and dashed upon
the ground. Thus all her imaginary schemes perished in a moment._

(c) _The Fox and the Crow_

_A crow, having stolen a bit of meat, perched in a tree and held
it in her beak. A fox, seeing her, wished to secure the meat,
and spoke to the crow thus: "How handsome you are! and I have
heard that the beauty of your voice is equal to that of your
form and feathers. Will you not sing for me, so that I may judge
whether this is true?" The crow was so pleased that she opened
her mouth to sing and dropped the meat, which the fox
immediately ate._

(d) _The Farmer and the Stork_

_A farmer set some traps to catch cranes which had been eating
his seed. With them he caught a stork. The stork, which had not
really been stealing, begged the farmer to spare his life,
saying that he was a bird of excellent character, that he was
not at all like the cranes, and that the farmer should have pity
on him. But the farmer said: "I have caught you with these
robbers, and you will have to die with them."_

(e) _The Miller, His Son, and the Donkey_

_A miller and his son were driving their donkey to a neighboring
town to sell him. They had not gone far when a child saw them
and cried out: "What fools those fellows are to be trudging
along on foot when one of them might be riding." The old man,
hearing this, made his son get on the donkey, while he himself
walked. Soon, they came upon some men. "Look," said one of them,
"see that lazy boy riding while his old father has to walk." On
hearing this, the miller made his son get off, and he climbed on
the donkey himself. Farther on they met a company of women, who
shouted out: "Why, you lazy old fellow, to ride along so
comfortably while your poor boy there can hardly keep pace by
the side of you!" And so the good-natured miller took his boy up
behind him and both of them rode. As they came to the town a
citizen said to them, "Why, you cruel fellows! You two are
better able to carry the poor little donkey than he is to carry
you." "Very well," said the miller, "we will try." So both of
them jumped to the ground, got some ropes, tied the donkey's
legs to a pole and tried to carry him. But as they crossed the
bridge the donkey became frightened, kicked loose and fell into
the stream._

PROCEDURE. Present the fables in the order in which they are given
above. The method is to say to the subject:

"_You know what a fable is? You have heard fables?_" Whatever the
answer, proceed to explain a fable as follows: "_A fable, you know, is a
little story, and is meant to teach us a lesson. Now, I am going to read
a fable to you. Listen carefully, and when I am through I will ask you
to tell me what lesson the fable teaches us. Ready; listen._" After
reading the fable, say: "_What lesson does that teach us?_" Record the
response _verbatim_ and proceed with the next as follows: "_Here is
another. Listen again and tell me what lesson this fable teaches us_,"
etc.

As far as possible, avoid comment or commendation until all the fables
have been given. If the first answer is of an inferior type and we
express too much satisfaction with it, we thereby encourage the
subject to continue in his error. On the other hand, never express
dissatisfaction with a response, however absurd or _malapropos_ it may
be. Many subjects are anxious to know how well they are doing and
continually ask, "Did I get that one right?" It is sufficient to say,
"You are getting along nicely," or something to that effect. Offer no
comments, suggestions, or questions which might put the subject on the
right track. This much self-control is necessary if we would make the
conditions of the test uniform for all subjects.

The only occasion when a supplementary question is permissible is in
case of a response whose meaning is not clear. Even then we must be
cautious and restrict ourselves to some such question as, "_What do you
mean?_" or, "_Explain; I don't quite understand what you mean_." The
scoring of fables is somewhat difficult at best, and this additional
question is often sufficient to place the response very definitely in
the right or wrong column.

SCORING. Give score 2, i.e., 2 points, for a correct answer, and 1 for
an answer which deserves half credit. The test is passed in year XII
_if 4 points are earned_; that is, if two responses are correct or if
one is correct and two deserve half credit.

Score 2 means that the fable has been correctly interpreted and that the
lesson it teaches has been stated in general terms.

There are two types of response which may be given half credit. They
include (1) the interpretations which are stated in general terms and
are fairly plausible, but are not exactly correct; and (2) those which
are perfectly correct as to substance, but are not generalized.

We overlook ordinary faults of expression and regard merely the
essential meaning of the response.

The only way to explain the method is by giving copious illustrations.
If the following sample responses are carefully studied, a reasonable
degree of expertness in scoring fables may be acquired with only a
limited amount of actual practice. The sampling may appear to the reader
needlessly prolix, but experience has taught us that in giving
directions for the scoring of tests error always lies on the side of
taking too much for granted.

(a) _Hercules and the Wagoner_

_Full credit; score 2._ "God helps those who help themselves."
"Do not depend on others." "Help yourself before calling for
help." "It teaches that we should rely upon ourselves."

The following are not quite so good, but are nevertheless
considered satisfactory. "We should always try, even if it looks
hard and we think we can't do it." "When in trouble try to get
out of it yourself." "We've got to do things without help." "Not
to be lazy."

_Half credit; score 1._ This is most often given for the
response which contains the correct idea, but states it in terms
of the concrete situation, e.g.: "The man ought to have tried
himself first." "Hercules wanted to teach the man to help
himself." "The driver was too much inclined to depend on
others." "The man was too lazy. He should not have called for
help until he had tried to get out by himself." "To get out and
try instead of watching."

_Unsatisfactory; score 0._ Failures are mainly of five
varieties: (1) generalized interpretations which entirely miss
the point; (2) crude interpretations which not only miss the
point, but are also stated in terms of the concrete situation;
(3) irrelevant or incoherent remarks; (4) efforts to repeat the
story; and (5) inability to respond.

Sample failures of type (1), entirely incorrect generalizations:
"Teaches us to look where we are going." "Not to ask for
anything when there is no one to help." "To help those who are
in trouble." "Teaches us to be polite." "How to help others."
"Not to be cruel to horses." "Always to do what people tell you"
(or "obey orders," etc.). "Not to be foolish" (or stupid, etc.).
"If you would have a thing well done, do it yourself."

Failures of type (2), crude interpretations stated in concrete
terms: "How to get out of the mud." "Not to get stuck in the
mud." "To carry a stick along to pry yourself out if you get
into a mud-hole." "To help any one who is stuck in the mud."
"Taught Hercules to help the horses along and not whip them too
hard." "Not to be mean like Hercules."

Failures of type (3), irrelevant responses: "It was foolish not
to thank him." "He should have helped the driver." "Hercules was
mean." "If any one helps himself the horses will try." "The
driver should have done what Hercules told him." "He wanted the
man to help the oxen."

Type (4): Efforts to repeat the story.

Type (5): Inability to respond.

(b) _The Maid and the Eggs_

_Full credit; score 2._ "Teaches us not to build air-castles."
"Don't count your chickens before they are hatched." "Not to
plan too far ahead." Slightly inferior, but still acceptable:
"Never make too many plans." "Don't count on the second thing
till you have done the first."

_Half credit; score 1._ "It teaches us not to have our minds on
the future when we carry milk on the head." "She was building
air-castles and so lost her milk." "She was planning too far
ahead."

The responses just given are examples of fairly correct
interpretations in non-generalized terms. The following are
examples of generalized interpretations which fall below the
accuracy required for full credit: "Never make plans." "Not to
be too proud." "To keep our mind on what we are doing." "Don't
cross a bridge till you come to it." "Don't count your _eggs_
before they are hatched." "Not to be wanting things; learn to
wait." "Not to imagine; go ahead and do it."

_Unsatisfactory; score 0._ Type (1), entirely incorrect
generalization: "That money does not buy everything." "Not to be
greedy." "Not to be selfish." "Not to waste things." "Not to
take risks like that." "Not to think about clothes." "Count your
chickens before they are hatched."

Type (2), very crude interpretations stated in concrete terms:
"Not to carry milk on the head." "Teaches her to watch and not
throw down her head." "To carry her head straight." "Not to
spill milk." "To keep your chickens and you will make more
money."

Type (3), irrelevant responses: "She wanted the money." "Teaches
us to read and write" (18-year-old of 8-year intelligence).
"About a girl who was selling some milk."

Type (4), effort to repeat the story.

Type (5), inability to respond.

(c) _The Fox and the Crow_

_Full credit; score 2._ "Teaches us not to listen to flattery."
"Don't let yourself be flattered." "It is not safe to believe
people who flatter us." "We had better look out for people who
brag on us."

_Half credit; score 1._ Correct idea in concrete terms: "The
crow was so proud of herself that she lost all she had." "The
crow listened to flattery and got left." "Not to be proud and
let people think you can sing when you can't." "If anybody
brags on you don't sing or do what he tells you."

Pertinent but somewhat inferior generalizations: "Not to be too
proud." "Pride goes before a fall." "To be on our guard against
people who are our enemies." "Not to do everything people tell
you." "Don't trust every slick fellow you meet."

_Unsatisfactory; score 0._ Type (1), incorrect generalization:
"Not to go with people you don't know." "Not to be selfish." "To
share your food." "Look before you leap." "Not to listen to
evil." "Not to steal." "Teaches honesty." "Not to covet." "Think
for yourself." "Teaches wisdom." "Never listen to advice."
"Never let any one get ahead of you." "To figure out what they
are going to do." "Never try to do two things at once." "How to
get what you want."

Type (2), very crude interpretation stated in terms of the
concrete situation: "Not to sing before you eat." "Not to hold a
thing in your mouth; eat it." "To eat a thing before you think
of your beauty." "To swallow it before you sing." "To be on your
watch when you have food in your mouth."

Type (3), irrelevant responses: "The fox was greedy." "The fox
was slicker than what the crow was." "The crow ought not to have
opened her mouth." "The crow should just have shaken her head."
"It served the crow right for stealing the meat." "The fox
wanted the meat and just told the crow that to get it."
"Foolishness." "Guess that's where the old fox got his
name--'Old Foxy'--Don't teach us anything."

Type (4), efforts to repeat the story.

Type (5), inability to respond.

(d) _The Farmer and the Stork_

_Full credit; score 2._ "You are judged by the company you
keep." "Teaches us to keep out of bad company." "Birds of a
feather flock together." "If you go with bad people you are
counted like them." "We should choose our friends carefully."
"Don't go with bad people." "Teaches us to avoid the appearance
of evil."

_Half credit; score 1._ "The stork should not have been with the
cranes." "Teaches him not to go with robbers." "Don't go with
people who are not of your nation." "Not to follow others."

_Unsatisfactory; score 0._ Type (1), incorrect generalization:
"Not to steal." "Not to tell lies." "Not to give excuses." "A
poor excuse is better than none." "Not to trust what people
say." "Not to listen to excuses." "Not to harm animals that do
no harm." "To have pity on others." "Not to be cruel." "To be
kind to birds." "Not to blame people for what they don't do."
"Teaches that those who do good often suffer for those who do
evil." "To tend to your own business." "Not to meddle with other
people's things." "Not to trespass on people's property." "Not
to think you are so nice." "To keep out of mischief."

Type (2), very crude interpretations in concrete terms: "Taught
the stork to look where it stepped and not walk into a trap."
"Taught the stork to keep out of the man's field." "Not to take
the seeds."

Type (3), irrelevant responses: "The farmer was right; storks do
eat grain." "Served the stork right, he was stealing too." "He
should try to help the stork out of the field."

Type (4), efforts to repeat the story.

Type (5), inability to reply.

(e) _The Miller, His Son, and the Donkey_

_Full credit; score 2._ "When you try to please everybody you
please nobody." "Don't listen to everybody; you can't please
them all." "Don't take every one's advice." "Don't try to do
what everybody tells you." "Use your own judgment." "Have a mind
of your own." "Make up your mind and stick to it." "Don't be
wishy-washy." "Have confidence in your own opinions."

_Half credit; score 1._ Interpretations which are generalized
but somewhat inferior: "Never take any one's advice" (too
sweeping a conclusion). "Don't take foolish advice." "Take your
own advice." "It teaches us that people don't always agree."

Correct idea but not generalized: "They were fools to listen to
everybody." "They should have walked or rode just as they
thought best, without listening to other people."

_Unsatisfactory; score 0._ Type (1), incorrect generalization:
"To do right." "To do what people tell you." "To be kind to old
people." "To be polite." "To serve others." "Not to be cruel to
animals." "To have sympathy for beasts of burden." "To be
good-natured." "Not to load things on animals that are small."
"That it is always better to leave things as they are." "That
men were not made for beasts of burden."

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