Henry Blanc - "A Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia"

Edna Ferber - "Gigolo"

Thomas Carson - "Ranching, Sport and Travel"

Arthur Weir - "Fleurs de lys and other poems"

Editorial
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

The Measurement of Intelligence

L >> Lewis Madison Terman >> The Measurement of Intelligence



RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS
IN EDUCATION


EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY


DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION
OF ALEXANDER INGLIS

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
HARVARD UNIVERSITY




THE MEASUREMENT
OF INTELLIGENCE


AN EXPLANATION OF AND A
COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE USE OF THE
STANFORD REVISION AND EXTENSION OF
_The Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale_

BY

LEWIS M. TERMAN
PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY

[Illustration]

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO
The Riverside Press Cambridge




COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY LEWIS M. TERMAN

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED



The Riverside Press
CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.




To the Memory
OF
ALFRED BINET

PATIENT RESEARCHER, CREATIVE THINKER, UNPRETENTIOUS SCHOLAR;
INSPIRING AND FRUITFUL DEVOTEE
OF
INDUCTIVE AND DYNAMIC
PSYCHOLOGY




EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION


The present volume appeals to the editor of this series as one of the
most significant books, viewed from the standpoint of the future of our
educational theory and practice, that has been issued in years. Not only
does the volume set forth, in language so simple that the layman can
easily understand, the large importance for public education of a
careful measurement of the intelligence of children, but it also
describes the tests which are to be given and the entire procedure of
giving them. In a clear and easy style the author sets forth scientific
facts of far-reaching educational importance, facts which it has cost
him, his students, and many other scientific workers, years of
painstaking labor to accumulate.

Only very recently, practically only within the past half-dozen years,
have scientific workers begun to appreciate fully the importance of
intelligence tests as a guide to educational procedure, and up to the
present we have been able to make but little use of such tests in our
schools. The conception in itself has been new, and the testing
procedure has been more or less unrefined and technical. The following
somewhat popular presentation of the idea and of the methods involved,
itself based on a scientific monograph which the author is publishing
elsewhere, serves for the first time to set forth in simple language the
technical details of giving such intelligence tests.

The educational significance of the results to be obtained from
careful measurements of the intelligence of children can hardly be
overestimated. Questions relating to the choice of studies, vocational
guidance, schoolroom procedure, the grading of pupils, promotional
schemes, the study of the retardation of children in the schools,
juvenile delinquency, and the proper handling of subnormals on the
one hand and gifted children on the other,--all alike acquire new
meaning and significance when viewed in the light of the measurement
of intelligence as outlined in this volume. As a guide to the
interpretation of the results of other forms of investigation relating
to the work, progress, and needs of children, intelligence tests form a
very valuable aid. More than all other forms of data combined, such
tests give the necessary information from which a pupil's possibilities
of future mental growth can be foretold, and upon which his further
education can be most profitably directed.

The publication of this revision and extension of the original
Binet-Simon scale for measuring intelligence, with the closer adaptation
of it to American conditions and needs, should mark a distinct step in
advance in our educational procedure. It means the perfection of another
and a very important measuring stick for evaluating educational
practices, and in particular for diagnosing individual possibilities and
needs. Just now the method is new, and its use somewhat limited, but it
is the confident prediction of many students of the subject that, before
long, intelligence tests will become as much a matter of necessary
routine in schoolroom procedure as a blood-count now is in physical
diagnosis. That our schoolroom methods will in turn become much more
intelligent, and that all classes of children, but especially the gifted
and the slow, will profit by such intellectual diagnosis, there can be
but little question.

That any parent or teacher, without training, can give these tests, the
author in no way contends. However, the observations of Dr. Kohs, cited
in Chapter VII, as well as the experience of the author and others who
have given courses in intelligence testing to teachers, alike indicate
that sufficient skill to enable teachers and school principals to give
such tests intelligently is not especially difficult to acquire. This
being the case it may be hoped that the requisite training to enable
them to handle these tests may be included, very soon, as a part of the
necessary pedagogical equipment of those who aspire to administrative
positions in our public and private schools.

Besides being of special importance to school officers and to students
of education in colleges and normal schools, this volume can confidently
be recommended to physicians and social workers, and to teachers and
parents interested in intelligence measurements, as at once the simplest
and the best explanation of the newly-evolved intelligence tests, which
has so far appeared in print.

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY.




PREFACE


The constant and growing use of the Binet-Simon intelligence scale in
public schools, institutions for defectives, reform schools, juvenile
courts, and police courts is sufficient evidence of the intrinsic
worth of the method. It is generally recognized, however, that the
serviceableness of the scale has hitherto been seriously limited, both
by the lack of a sufficiently detailed guide and by a number of
recognized imperfections in the scale itself. The Stanford revision and
extension has been worked out for the purpose of correcting as many as
possible of these imperfections, and it is here presented with a rather
minute description of the method as a whole and of the individual tests.

The aim has been to present the explanations and instructions so clearly
and in such an untechnical form as to make the book of use, not only to
the psychologist, but also to the rank and file of teachers, physicians,
and social workers. More particularly, it is designed as a text for use
in normal schools, colleges, and teachers' reading-circles.

While the use of the intelligence scale for research purposes and for
accurate diagnosis will of necessity always be restricted to those who
have had extensive training in experimental psychology, the author
believes that the time has come when its wider use for more general
purposes should be encouraged.

However, it cannot be too strongly emphasized that no one, whatever his
previous training may have been, can make proper use of the scale unless
he is willing to learn the method of procedure and scoring down to the
minutest detail. A general acquaintance with the nature of the
individual tests is by no means sufficient.

Perhaps the best way to learn the method will be to begin by studying
the book through, in order to gain a general acquaintance with the
tests; then, if possible, to observe a few examinations; and finally to
take up the procedure for detailed study in connection with practice
testing. Twenty or thirty tests, made with constant reference to the
procedure as described in Part II, should be sufficient to prepare the
teacher or physician to make profitable use of the scale.

The Stanford revision of the scale is the result of a number of
investigations, made possible by the cooeperation of the author's
graduate students. Grateful acknowledgment is especially due to
Professor H. G. Childs, Miss Grace Lyman, Dr. George Ordahl, Dr. Louise
Ellison Ordahl, Miss Neva Galbreath, Mr. Wilford Talbert, Mr. J. Harold
Williams, and Mr. Herbert E. Knollin. Without their assistance this book
could not have been written.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY,
_April, 1916_.




CONTENTS


PART I. PROBLEMS AND RESULTS

CHAPTER I

THE USES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS 3

Intelligence tests of retarded school children. Intelligence
tests of the feeble-minded. Intelligence tests of delinquents.
Intelligence tests of superior children. Intelligence tests as a
basis for grading. Intelligence tests for vocational fitness.
Other uses of intelligence tests.

CHAPTER II

SOURCES OF ERROR IN JUDGING INTELLIGENCE 22

Are intelligence tests superfluous? The necessity of standards.
The intelligence of retarded children usually overestimated. The
intelligence of superior children usually underestimated. Other
fallacies in the estimation of intelligence. Binet's
questionnaire on teachers' methods of judging intelligence.
Binet's experiment on how teachers test intelligence.

CHAPTER III

DESCRIPTION OF THE BINET-SIMON METHOD 36

Essential nature of the scale. How the scale was derived. List of
tests. How the scale is used. Special characteristics of the
Binet-Simon method. The use of age standards. The kind of mental
functions brought into play. Binet would test "general
intelligence." Binet's conception of general intelligence. Other
conceptions of intelligence. Guiding principles in choice and
arrangement of tests. Some avowed limitations of the Binet tests.

CHAPTER IV

NATURE OF THE STANFORD REVISION AND EXTENSION 51

Sources of data. Method of arriving at a revision. List of tests
in the Stanford revision and extension. Summary of changes.
Effects of the revision on the mental ages secured.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF ONE THOUSAND INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS 65

The distribution of intelligence. The validity of the
intelligence quotient. Sex differences. Intelligence of the
different social classes. The relation of the I Q to the quality
of the child's school work. The relation between I Q and grade
progress. Correlation between I Q and the teachers' estimates of
the children's intelligence. The validity of the individual
tests.

CHAPTER VI

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS 78

Frequency of different degrees of intelligence. Classification of
intelligence quotients. Feeble-mindedness. Border-line cases.
Examples of border-line deficiency. Dull normals. Average
intelligence. Superior intelligence. Very superior intelligence.
Examples of very superior intelligence. Genius and "near" genius.
Is the I Q often misleading?

CHAPTER VII

RELIABILITY OF THE BINET-SIMON METHOD 105

General value of the method. Dependence of the scale's
reliability on the training of the examiner. Influence of the
subject's attitude. The influence of coaching. Reliability of
repeated tests. Influence of social and educational advantages.


PART II

GUIDE FOR THE USE OF THE STANFORD REVISION AND EXTENSION

CHAPTER VIII

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 121

Necessity of securing attention and effort. Quiet and seclusion.
Presence of others. Getting into _rapport_. Keeping the child
encouraged. The importance of tact. Personality of the examiner.
The avoidance of fatigue. Duration of the examination. Desirable
range of testing. Order of giving the tests. Coaxing to be
avoided. Adhering to formula. Scoring. Recording responses.
Scattering of successes. Supplementary considerations.
Alternative tests. Finding mental age. The use of the
intelligence quotient. How to find the I Q of adult subjects.
Material for use in testing.

CHAPTER IX

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR III

1. Pointing to parts of the body 142
2. Naming familiar objects 143
3. Enumeration of objects in pictures 145
4. Giving sex 146
5. Giving the family name 147
6. Repeating six to seven syllables 149
Alternative test: Repeating three digits 150

CHAPTER X

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR IV

1. Comparison of lines 151
2. Discrimination of forms 152
3. Counting four pennies 154
4. Copying a square 155
5. Comprehension, first degree 157
6. Repeating four digits 159
Alternative test: Repeating twelve to thirteen syllables 160

CHAPTER XI

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR V

1. Comparison of weights 161
2. Naming colors 163
3. AEsthetic comparison 165
4. Giving definitions in terms of use 167
5. The game of patience 169
6. Three commissions 172
Alternative test: Giving age 173

CHAPTER XII

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR VI

1. Distinguishing right and left 175
2. Finding omissions in pictures 178
3. Counting thirteen pennies 180
4. Comprehension, second degree 181
5. Naming four coins 184
6. Repeating sixteen to eighteen syllables 185
Alternative test: Forenoon and afternoon 187

CHAPTER XIII

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR VII

1. Giving the number of fingers 189
2. Description of pictures 190
3. Repeating five digits 193
4. Tying a bow-knot 196
5. Giving differences from memory 199
6. Copying a diamond 204
Alternative test 1: Naming the days of the week 205
Alternative test 2: Repeating three digits reversed 207

CHAPTER XIV

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR VIII

1. The ball-and-field test 210
2. Counting backwards from 20 to 1 213
3. Comprehension, third degree 215
4. Giving similarities, two things 217
5. Giving definitions superior to use 221
6. Vocabulary (20 definitions, 3600 words) 224
Alternative test 1: Naming six coins 231
Alternative test 2: Writing from dictation 231

CHAPTER XV

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR IX

1. Giving the date 234
2. Arranging five weights 236
3. Making change 240
4. Repeating four digits reversed 242
5. Using three words in a sentence 242
6. Finding rhymes 248
Alternative test 1: Naming the months 251
Alternative test 2: Counting the value of stamps 252

CHAPTER XVI

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR X

1. Vocabulary (30 definitions, 5400 words) 255
2. Detecting absurdities 255
3. Drawing designs from memory 260
4. Reading for eight memories 262
5. Comprehension, fourth degree 268
6. Naming sixty words 272
Alternative test 1: Repeating six digits 277
Alternative test 2: Repeating twenty to twenty-two syllables 277
Alternative test 3: Healy's Construction Puzzle A 278

CHAPTER XVII

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR XII

1. Vocabulary (40 definitions, 7200 words) 281
2. Defining abstract words 281
3. The ball-and-field test (superior plan) 286
4. Dissected sentences 286
5. Interpretation of fables (score 4) 290
6. Repeating five digits reversed 301
7. Interpretation of pictures 302
8. Giving similarities, three things 306

CHAPTER XVIII

INSTRUCTIONS FOR YEAR XIV

1. Vocabulary (50 definitions, 9000 words) 310
2. Induction test: finding a rule 310
3. Giving differences between a president and a king 313
4. Problem questions 315
5. Arithmetical reasoning 319
6. Reversing hands of a clock 321
Alternative test: Repeating seven digits 322

CHAPTER XIX

INSTRUCTIONS FOR "AVERAGE ADULT"

1. Vocabulary (65 definitions, 11,700 words) 324
2. Interpretation of fables (score 8) 324
3. Differences between abstract terms 324
4. Problem of the enclosed boxes 327
5. Repeating six digits reversed 329
6. Using a code 330
Alternative test 1: Repeating twenty-eight syllables 332
Alternative test 2: Comprehension of physical relations 333

CHAPTER XX

INSTRUCTIONS FOR "SUPERIOR ADULT"

1. Vocabulary (75 definitions, 13,500 words) 338
2. Binet's paper-cutting test 338
3. Repeating eight digits 340
4. Repeating thought of passage 340
5. Repeating seven digits reversed 345
6. Ingenuity test 345

SELECTED REFERENCES 349

INDEX 359




FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS


1. Distribution of Mental Ages of 62 Normal Adults 55
2. Distribution of I Q's of 905 Unselected Children, 5-14 Years
of Age 66
3. Median I Q of 457 Boys and 448 Girls, for the Ages 5-14 Years 69
4. Diamond drawn by R. W.; Age 13-10; Mental Age 7-6 82
5. Writing from Dictation. R. M., Age 15; Mental Age 9 83
6. Ball and Field Test. I. M., Age 14-2; Mental Age 9 84
7. Diamond drawn by A. W. 85
8. Drawing Designs from Memory. H. S., Age 11; Mental Age 8-3 86
9. Ball and Field Test. S. F., Age 17; Mental Age 11-6 88
10. Writing from Dictation. C. P., Age 10-2; Mental Age 7-11 90
11. Ball and Field Test. M. P., Age 14; Mental Age 10-8 91
12. Ball and Field Test. R. G., Age 13-5; Mental Age 10-6 93
13. Ball and Field Test. E. B., Age 7-9; I Q 130 98
14. Ball and Field Test. F. McA., Age 10-3; Mental Age 14-6 100
15. Drawing Designs from Memory. E. M., Age 6-11; Mental Age 10,
I Q 145 101
16. Ball and Field Test. B. F., Age 7-8; Mental Age 12-4; I Q 160 102
17. Healy and Fernald Construction Puzzle 279




THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

PART I

PROBLEMS AND RESULTS




THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE




CHAPTER I

THE USES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS


INTELLIGENCE TESTS OF RETARDED SCHOOL CHILDREN. Numerous studies of the
age-grade progress of school children have afforded convincing evidence
of the magnitude and seriousness of the retardation problem. Statistics
collected in hundreds of cities in the United States show that between a
third and a half of the school children fail to progress through the
grades at the expected rate; that from 10 to 15 per cent are retarded
two years or more; and that from 5 to 8 per cent are retarded at least
three years. More than 10 per cent of the $400,000,000 annually expended
in the United States for school instruction is devoted to re-teaching
children what they have already been taught but have failed to learn.

The first efforts at reform which resulted from these findings were
based on the supposition that the evils which had been discovered could
be remedied by the individualizing of instruction, by improved methods
of promotion, by increased attention to children's health, and by other
reforms in school administration. Although reforms along these lines
have been productive of much good, they have nevertheless been in a
measure disappointing. The trouble was, they were too often based upon
the assumption that under the right conditions all children would be
equally, or almost equally, capable of making satisfactory school
progress. Psychological studies of school children by means of
standardized intelligence tests have shown that this supposition is not
in accord with the facts. It has been found that children do not fall
into two well-defined groups, the "feeble-minded" and the "normal."
Instead, there are many grades of intelligence, ranging from idiocy on
the one hand to genius on the other. Among those classed as normal, vast
individual differences have been found to exist in original mental
endowment, differences which affect profoundly the capacity to profit
from school instruction.

We are beginning to realize that the school must take into account, more
seriously than it has yet done, the existence and significance of these
differences in endowment. Instead of wasting energy in the vain attempt
to hold mentally slow and defective children up to a level of progress
which is normal to the average child, it will be wiser to take account of
the inequalities of children in original endowment and to differentiate
the course of study in such a way that each child will be allowed to
progress at the rate which is normal to him, whether that rate be rapid
or slow.

While we cannot hold all children to the same standard of school
progress, we can at least prevent the kind of retardation which involves
failure and the repetition of a school grade. It is well enough
recognized that children do not enter with very much zest upon school
work in which they have once failed. Failure crushes self-confidence and
destroys the spirit of work. It is a sad fact that a large proportion of
children in the schools are acquiring the habit of failure. The remedy,
of course, is to measure out the work for each child in proportion to
his mental ability.

Before an engineer constructs a railroad bridge or trestle, he studies
the materials to be used, and learns by means of tests exactly the
amount of strain per unit of size his materials will be able to
withstand. He does not work empirically, and count upon patching up the
mistakes which may later appear under the stress of actual use. The
educational engineer should emulate this example. Tests and forethought
must take the place of failure and patchwork. Our efforts have been too
long directed by "trial and error." It is time to leave off guessing and
to acquire a scientific knowledge of the material with which we have to
deal. When instruction must be repeated, it means that the school, as
well as the pupil, has failed.

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