Buddhism and Buddhists in China
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Lewis Hodus >> Buddhism and Buddhists in China
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_3. The Buddhist Heaven._
Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but
also a heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven
is Amitabha (or in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess
of Mercy, is usually associated. Amitabha is explained as meaning
"boundless age." The original meaning is "boundless light," which
suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean influences. The translations
of the Amitabha sutras were wholly made by natives of central Asia.
Amitabha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of
Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk
called Dharmakara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he
presented to Lokes'vararaja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha
and a Buddha country ought to be. Lokes'vararaja imparted this
knowledge. Then the monk after meditation returned having made
forty-eight vows that he would not become a Buddha, until all living
beings should attain salvation in his heaven.
The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal:
"O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the
highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard
my name, when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me
with serene thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having
approached them surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand
before them worshipped by them, that is, so that their thoughts should
not be troubled, then may I not obtain the highest perfect knowledge."
A few extracts from the _Amitabha Vyuha Sutra_ will illustrate the
Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land:
"In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist
lands there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha
called Amitabha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but
enjoy all happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight
... the land of Pure Delight has seven precious fountains full of water
containing the eight virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered
with golden sand. On four sides there are steps made of gold, silver,
crystal and glass, precious stones, red pearls, and highly polished
agates. In the pools are variously colored, light emitting lotus flowers
as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, odorous and pure..."
"The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold.
Morning and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial
flowers (Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear
mornings after dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred
thousand myriads of Buddhas of the regions who return to their country
at meal time. When they have eaten they go away again."
"This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the
white egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s'rarika (a long legged bird),
the Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) ... All these birds, morning and
evening during the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound.
Their song produces the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy,
memory, ecstatic meditation, wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers
of faith, energy, memory, meditation and wisdom), the seven
_bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, memory,
discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation,
indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_
(the possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and
will, the ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow
of poverty, asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of
self-control, religious recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such
doctrines. When all beings of this land have heard the music, they
declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha (the
Buddha, the Law and the community of monks)."
As to those who enter this land it says:
"All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that
land. How can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in
that place ... He whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born
into that country. If there is a good man or woman who, on hearing of
Amitabha, takes this name and holds it in his mind one, two, three,
four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole heart is not distracted,
to that man at death Amitabha will appear. His heart will not be
disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure Delight
of Amitabha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those
living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that
land."
_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_
The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land
and through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new
ideas and the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly
adopted, and have held their place to this day. In other lands the
creation of a heaven and a hades has weakened the grip of ancestor
worship and ultimately displaced it. In China the opposite result has
obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the family system and along
with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered by the state and
Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as they
bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of
China's civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of
communication, which tended to make the family system dominant in China.
Today, the improvement of communication and the introduction of the
industrial system of the West with the individual emphasis of modern
education are factors which are weakening the family system and with it
ancestral worship.
VIII
THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA
Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery
dedicated to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the
incense burners send forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are
decorated with old paintings of gods and goddesses. The temple with its
courtyard has the appearance of prosperity. Its neat reception room,
with its tables, chairs and clock, shows the influence of the modern
world.
Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing
on Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts
of China. Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to
discuss Buddhism and its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded
these conversations, the substance of which forms the greater part of
this section.
_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_
"What does Buddhism do for men?"
"There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class
live among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their
life is entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as
real. A second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not
entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing
reality to them. The third and highest class are those who by meditation
have freed themselves from the thraldom of ideas and can enter the
sixteen heavens."
_2. Salvation for the Common Man_
"What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?"
"For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him
ten evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the
body, namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four
belong to the mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk;
three belong to the mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief."
"Is not this entirely negative?"
"Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these
evil deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop
with the prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable
deeds. Not only must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he
must cultivate the desire to save all beings. Not only must he not
steal, but he must assist men with his money. Not only must he not give
himself to lasciviousness, but he must treat all men with propriety. So
each prohibition involves a positive impulse to virtue, which is quite
as essential as the refraining from evil."
"What energizing power does Buddhism provide?"
"First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the
consequences of his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and
does that which is good. Then there is transmigration with the danger of
transmigration into beasts and insects. Again, there are the rewards in
the paradise of Amitabha. Moreover, there is even the possibility not
only of saving one's self, but by accumulated merit of saving one's
parents and relatives and shortening their stay in purgatory."
_3. The Place of Faith_
"Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitabha?"
"Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: 'If there be any one who
commits evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five
deadly sins and the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of
many crimes, deserves to fall into a miserable path of existence and
suffer endless pains during many long ages. On the eve of death he may
meet a good and learned teacher who, soothing and encouraging him in
various ways, will preach to him the excellent Law and teach him the
remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains', he will have no
time to think of Buddha.'"
"What hope has such a man?"
"Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: 'Some good friend will say to
him: Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter
the name of Buddha Amitabha.' Let him do so serenely with his voice
uninterrupted; let him be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has
completed ten times the thought, repeating 'Namah O-mi-to-fo,' I put my
trust in Buddha! On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha's
name he will, during every repetition expiate the sins which involve him
in births and deaths during eighty millions of long ages. He will, while
dying, see a golden lotus-flower, like the disk of the sun, appearing
before his eyes; in a moment he will be born in the world of highest
happiness. After twelve greater ages the lotus-flower will unfold;
thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvaras and Mahasattva's, raising
their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in detail the real
state of all the elements of nature and the law of the expiation of
sins."
"Does faith save such a man?"
"Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of
Amitabha. Amitabha's faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him
supreme confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to
have the desire to be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of
Amitabha."
_4. Salvation of the Second Class_
"How do those of the second class attain salvation?"
"The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not
entangled in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding
them as real. These men do not need images and outward sanctions, but
they need heaven and purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By
performing the ten good deeds they will obtain a quiet heart, having no
fear, and become saints and sages. Among men, saints and sages occupy a
high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit of good works merely
they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six celestial worlds
located immediately above the earth."
_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_
"And the third class?"
"This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of
meditation (four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation.
In later times under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens
were imagined which corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can
enter the sixteen heavens conditioned by form. By the practice of the
four _arupa-dhyanas_ [Footnote: That degree of abstract
contemplation from which all sensations are absent.] they enter the four
highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and not conditioned by
form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana."
"What is the driving power in all this?"
"It is _virya_ or energy."
_6. Heaven and Purgatory_
"Do heaven and purgatory exist?"
"Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven
is in the mind of Amitabha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains
of men."
"Does anything exist?"
"Nagarjuna says: 'There is no production, no destruction, no
annihilation, no persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and
no going forth.'"
_7. Sin_
"Does sin exist?"
"In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects
of the all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity
in which they are reconciled."
_8. Nirvana_
_"Do you know of any one who attained Nirvana?"_
"Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a
state into which one can enter here."
"Can you express this experience in words?"
"Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first
I was in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of
the world. Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and
surpassing the power of language to express."
_9. The Philosophical Background_
"What is behind this universe!"
"Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It
is the basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in
it. It is because of this common background that men are able to
apprehend it. This universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its
characteristics are that everything born grows old, is subject to
disease and death; that the teachings of Buddha purify the mind and
enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that all Buddhas by treading
the same way of perfection will attain the highest freedom."
"You speak of the Buddhist Trinity."
"Yes, we have the Dharmakaya. This is the essence-body, the ground of
all being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels,
men and even demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called
the first person. The second person is the Sambhogakaya, the body of
bliss. This is the heavenly manifestation of Buddha. The third person is
the Nirmanakaya. This is the projection of the body of bliss on earth."
Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there
is a resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist
trinity would correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal
background of universal Being. The second corresponds to the glorified
Christ and the third to the historic Jesus. There is no counterpart
either to God the Father or to the Holy Spirit.
"Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?"
"Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become
Buddhas."
Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: "What have you done
in Buddhism?" The friend answered: "I have written and translated many
books." "I do not mean that," he answered. "What _work_ have you
done?" The friend confessed that he had not done much else. Then he
said: "Every morning when you awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon
your state before you were born. Think back to that state where your
soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself in that state and you will
find ineffable enlightenment and joy."
The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets
sounded on the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of
Peking returning home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the
rushing, restless crowd and still we felt the calm of another world. Has
not Christianity a message of balm and peace for these sons of the East
who are so sensitive to the touch of the eternal and sublime?
_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_
An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious
requests and demands declared: "I could not get through my day's work,
if I did not spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did
when he became enlightened." He was asked what he did when he meditated
or prayed. "Nothing at all." "Well, about what do you think?" "Of
nothing at all. I stop thinking when I engage in religious meditation.
Life makes me think too much. I should lose my sanity, if I did not stop
thinking and enter into the 'void', whence we all came and into which we
all are going to drop back."
His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist's
description of his prayer life, and pressed further for details. "What
happens when you meditate or pray?"
"Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which
the passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot
altogether take away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that
everything is passing away. When you accept that fact, then you become
really free. The Christian world seemed to have been tremendously
impressed by the slogan of the French soldiers at Verdun, 'They shall
not pass!' Perhaps the German soldiers did not pass just then or there.
But the French soldiers themselves are all passing away. And everything
in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion teaches us is:
'Let it pass!' You cannot keep anything for very long. And prayer or
meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought deliberately.
Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, and
enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why
worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit
worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless
peace of Nirvana."
Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the
difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly:
"Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come
to her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her:
'Wife, I should think you would make a first-class Christian.' But I
think she lets herself be worried by altogether too many troubles. She
is all the time thinking and fussing and planning. To be sure, it is
mostly about other people, But then she does have the children and the
house and the relatives and friends and neighbors to look after. Perhaps
she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is all a matter of
temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, because it
gives you such a wonderful peace."
IX
PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM:
_1. Periods of Buddhist History_
The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods.
Buddhism entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The
first period, that of the translation and propagation of the faith,
ended in 420 A.D. The second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to
the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of
establishment, ended with the close of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D.
The fourth period, that of decay, has extended to the present day.
_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_
There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a
tide, or a wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an
Indian monk, stopped in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of
Religions in Chicago. It was his purpose to make a tour of China, to
arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send missionaries to India to restore
Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda throughout the whole
world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the veteran
missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a
horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange
appearance and in the cost of his garments than they were in his great
ideals. They were also feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government
and at once inquired about the attitude of the government toward such an
innovation. Dharmapala did not go beyond Shanghai.
Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have
taken a deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the
chief monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such
visits. In 1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided
to confiscate Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread
of modern education. The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the
protection of Japanese monks in order to hold their property. When by
1906 the Empress Dowager saw the consequences of her edict, she at once
issued a new edict, reversing the former one, and the Japanese monks
took their departure.
The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In
many of the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect.
Established primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to
serve as points of departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The
twenty-one demands made upon China included two significant items in the
last group which the Chinese refused to sign: "Art. 2: Japanese
hospitals, churches and schools in the interior of China shall be
granted the right of owning land." "Art. 7: China agrees that Japanese
subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in China."
Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under
the leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the
training of Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for
further training, and the more promising ones were to study in India.
This project was discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the
lack of funds.
When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The
monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was
published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then
stopped. A national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking.
A survey of monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and
propaganda were increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven
regulations for the control of Buddhist monasteries, which markedly
dampened the ardor of the reformers.
The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added
effect of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of
new activity among them in China.
_3. Present Activities_
While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of
China, it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and
Chekiang and in the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the
influence of the modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan
has sufficient vitality to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us
consider some of these activities.
_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._--During the T'ai Ping
rebellion, which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered
with the towns. Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but
their means of support were taken away and the monks were scattered.
There are still many of these ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley
and in southern and western China. Quite a number of them have been
rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is that at Changchow which was
destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the largest monastery in
China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several new
monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of
Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are
building activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave
of prosperity.
T'ai Hsu, one of the leaders' of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal
program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that
there should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72
Buddhist hospitals and 72 orphanages.
_(b) Accessions._--Regarding the number of monks it is almost
impossible to obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate,
based upon partial returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and
that of nuns about 10,000. The impression among the Buddhists is that
the number of monks is increasing. That is quite probable in view of the
rebuilding and repairing which is now in progress.
More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class.
Many officials, disheartened by the present confused political
situation, have sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now
abbots of monasteries and are using their influence to build them up.
All over China there are Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to
the study of Buddhism and to meditation. Some of the Chinese students
who have studied in Buddhist universities in Japan are propagating
Buddhism by lecture and pen.
_(c) Publications._--Quite as significant is the increase in the
publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries
have printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their
own use. In addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where
Buddhist literature is printed. The most famous are Yang's establishment
at Nanking, the Buddhist Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these
establishments about nine hundred different works are being published.
The most noteworthy recent publication has been that of the Chinese
Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai.
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