Lorin Low Dame - "Handbook of the Trees of New England"

William Bligh - "A Narrative Of The Mutiny, On Board His Majesty's Ship Bounty; And The Subsequent Voyage Of Part Of The Crew, In The Ship's Boat"

Eliza Orzeszko (AKA Orzeszkowa) - "The Argonauts"

May Sinclair - "Life and Death of Harriett Frean"

Annual Bibliography of Commonwealth Literature 2007
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Sylva, Vol. 1 (of 2)

J >> John Evelyn >> Sylva, Vol. 1 (of 2)




From laurel{313:3} chew'd the Pythian priestess rose,
Events of future actions to disclose.
Laurel triumphant generals did wear,
And laurel heralds in their hands did bear.
Poets ambitious of unfading praise,
Phoebus, the Muses all are crown'd with bays.
And vertue to her sons the prize does name
Symbol of glory, and immortal fame.{313:2}

I have now finish'd my planting: A word or two concerning their
preservation, and the cure of their infirmities, expect in the following
chapter.


FOOTNOTES:

{294:1}

Arbuteae crates, & mystica vannus Iacchi.

_Georg. 1._

{296:1}

............Non ultima belli
Arma puellaris; laqueos haec nectit amantum,
Et venatricis disponit retia formae.

_Couleii_ pl. l. 6.

{297:1}

Quam multa arboribus tribuuntur crimina falsa?

{300:1}

Hic ver perpetuum, atque alienis mensibus aestas.

{301:1}

.....Mala furta hominum densis mucronibus arcens
Securum defendit inexpugnabilis hortum;
Exornatque simul, toto spectabilis anno,
Et numero, & viridi foliorum luce nitentum.

_Couleii Pl. l. 6._

{308:1}

Inseritur lauro cerasus, partuque coacto
Tingit adoptivus virginis ora pudor.

{313:1} Carol. _Avanti_ not. in cornan. Bapt. Fiera.

{313:2}

Tu sacros Phoebi tripodas, tu sidera sentis,
Et casus aperis rerum praesaga futuros.
Te juvat armorum strepitus, clangorque tubarum;
Perque acies medias, saevique pericula belli,
Accendis bellantum animos; te Cynthius ipse,
Te Musae, vatesque sacri optavere coronam:
Ipsa suis virtus te spem proponit alumnis,
Tantum servatus valuit pudor, & bona fama.

Rapinus.

{313:3} _Daphnephagi_ were such as after eating the leaves of the bay,
became inspir'd.




CHAPTER VII.

_Of the infirmities of trees, &c._


So many are the infirmities and sicknesses of trees, and indeed of the
whole family of vegetables, that it were almost impossible to enumerate
and make a just catalogue of them; and as difficult to such infallible
cures and remedies as could be desired; the effects arising from so
many, and such different causes: Whenever therefore our trees and plants
fail and come short of the fruit and productions we expect of them, (if
the fault be not in our want of care) it is certainly to be attributed
to those infirmities, to which all elementary things are obnoxious,
either from the nature of the things themselves, and in themselves, or
from some outward injury, not only through their being unskilfully
cultivated by men, and expos'd to hurtful beasts, but subject to be
prey'd upon and ruin'd by the most minute and despicable insect, besides
other casualties and accidents innumerable, according to the rustick
rhyme,

The calf, the wind-shoc and the knot,
The canker, scab, scurf, sap and rot,

affecting the several parts: These invade the roots; stony and rocky
grounds, ivy, and all climbers, weeds, suckers, fern, wet, mice, moles,
winds, &c. to these may be added siderations, pestiferous air, fogs,
excessive heat, sulphurous and arsenic smoak, and vapours, and other
plagues, tumours, distortions, lacrymations, _tophi_, gouts, carbuncles,
ulcers, crudities, fungosities, gangreens, and an army more, whereof
some are hardly discernable, yet enemies, which not foreseen, makes many
a bargain of standing-wood (though seemingly fair) very costly ware: In
a word, whatsoever is exitial to men, is so to trees; for the aversion
of which, they had of old recourse to the _robigalia_ and other Gentile
ceremonies: but no longer abus'd by charmers and superstitious
fopperies, we have in this chapter endeavoured to set down and prescribe
the best and most approved remedies hitherto found out, as well natural
as artificial.

And first, weeds are to be diligently pull'd up by hand after rain,
whiles your seedlings are very young, and till they come to be able to
kill them with shade, and over-dripping: And then are you for the
obstinate, to use the haw, fork, and spade, to extirpate dog-grass,
bear-bind, &c.

And here mentioning shade and dripping, though I cannot properly speak
of them as infirmities of trees, they are certainly the causes of their
unthriving till remov'd; such as that of the oak and mast-holme,
wall-nut, pine and fir, &c. the thickness of the leaves intercepting the
sun and rain; whilst that of other trees good, as the elm, and several
other.

2. Suckers shall be duly eradicated, and with a sharp spade dexterously
separated from the mother-roots, and transplanted in convenient places
for propagation, as the season requires.

Here note, that fruit graffed upon suckers, are more dispos'd to
produce suckers, than such as are propagated upon good stocks.

3. Fern, is best destroy'd by striking off the tops, as Tarquin did the
heads of the poppies: This done with a good wand, or cudgel, at the
decrease in the Spring, and now and then in Summer, kills it (as also it
does nettles) in a year or two, (but most infallibly, by being eaten
down at its spring, by Scotch-sheep) beyond the vulgar way of mowing, or
burning, which rather encreases, than diminishes it.

4. Over-much wet is to be drain'd by trenches, where it infests the
roots of such kinds as require drier ground: But if a drip do fret into
the body of a tree by the head (which will certainly decay it) cutting
first the place smooth, stop and cover it with loam and hay, or a
cerecloth, till a new bark succeed. But not only the wet, which is to be
diverted by trenching the ground, is exitial to many trees, but their
repletion of too abundant nourishment; and therefore sometimes there may
be as much occasion to use the lancet, as phlebotomy and venaesection to
animals; especially if the hypothesis hold, of the superfluous
moisture's descent into the roots, to be re-concocted; but where, in
case it be more copious than{316:1} can be there elaborated, it turns to
corruption, and sends up a tainted juice, which perverts the whole habit
of the tree: In this exigence therefore, it were perhaps more
counsellable to draw it out by a deep incision, and to depend upon a new
supply, than upon confidence of correcting this evil quality, by other
medications, to let it perish. Other causes of their sickness (not
always taken notice of) proceed from too liberal refreshments and
over-watering in dry and scorching seasons; especially in nurseries:
The water should therefore be fitly qualify'd, neither brackish, bitter,
stagnat, or putrid, sower, acrimonious, vitriolic, arenous and gravelly,
churlish, harsh and lean; (I mention them promiscuously) and whatever
vicious quality they are perceptibly tinctur'd and impregnate with,
being by no means proper drink for plants: Wherefore a very critical
examen of this so necessary an element (the very principle, as some
think, and only nutriment of vegetables){317:1} is highly to be
regarded, together with more than ordinary skill how to apply it: In
order to which, the constitution and texture of plants and trees are
philosophically to be consider'd; some affecting macerations with dung
and other mixtures (which I should not much commend) others quite
contrary, the quick and running spring, dangerous enough, and worse than
snow-water, which is not in some cases to be rejected: Generally
therefore that were to be chosen, which passing silently through ponds
and other receptacles, exposed to the sun and air, nearest approaching
to that of rain, dropping from the uberous cloud, is certainly the most
natural and nursing: As to the quantity, some plants require plentiful
watering, others, rather often, than all at once; all of them sucking it
in by the root for the most part, which are their mouths, and carry it
thence through all the canales, organs and members of the whole
vegetable body, digested and qualified so as to maintain and supply
their being and growth, for the producing of whatever they afford for
the use of man, and other living creatures.

5. The bark-bound are to be released by drawing your knife rind-deep
from the root, as far as you can conveniently, drawing your knife from
the top downwards half-way, and at a small distance, from the bottom
upwards, the other half; this, in more places, as the bulk of the stem
requires; and if crooked, cut deep, and frequent in the ham; and if the
gaping be much filling the rift with a little cow-dung; do this on each
side, and at Spring, February or March: Also cutting off some branches
is profitable; especially such as are blasted, or lightning-struck: If
(as sometimes also) it proceed from the baking of the earth about the
stem, lighten, and stir it.

6. The _teredo_, _cossi_, and other worms, lying between the body and
the bark, (which it separates) poyson that passage to the great
prejudice of some trees; but the holes being once found, they are to be
taken out with a light incision, the wound covered with loam; or let the
dry-part of the wood (bark and all) be cut: applying only a wash of piss
and vinegar twice or thrice a week during a month: The best means to
find out their quarters, is to follow the wood-pecker, and other birds,
often pitching upon the stem (as you may observe them) and knocking with
their bills, give notice that the tree is infected, at least, between
the bark. But there are divers kinds of these +xylophagoi+ of which the
+teredon+ or _tarmes_ we have mentioned, will sometimes make such a
noise in a tree, as to awaken a sleeping man: The more rugous are the
_cossi_, of old had in _deliciis_ amongst the epicures, who us'd to
fatten them in flower; and this, (as Tertullian, and S. Hierom tells us)
was the chief food of the _hierophantae Cereris_; as they are at this
day a great _regalo_ in Japan: In the mean time, experience has taught
us, that _millipedes_ wood-lice (to be plentifully found under old
timber-logs, being dry'd and reduc'd to powder, and taken in drink) are
an admirable specific against the jaundies, scorbut, &c. to purifie the
blood, and clarifie the sight.

There is a pestilent green-worm which hides it self in the earth, and
gets into pots and cases, eating our seedlings, and gnawing the very
roots, which should be searched out: And now we mention roots,
over-grown toads will sometimes nestle at the roots of trees, when they
make a cavern, which they infect with a poysonous vapour, of which the
leaves famish'd and flagging give notice, and the enemy dug out with the
spade: But this chiefly concerns the gardners mural fruit-trees; though
I question not but that even our forest-trees suffer by such pernicious
vapours, rats, and other stinking vermine making their nests within
them. But of all these, let our industrious planter, (especially the
learned favourers of the most refined parts of horticulture) consult the
Discourses and experiments of _Sign._ Fran. Redi, Malphigius, Levenhock,
Swamerdam, &c. with our own learned Doctors, Lyster, Sloane, Hook, (and
other sagacious naturalists) to shew, that none of these diseases and
infirmities in plants proceed from any pure accidental, but real cause;
_flatus_, venemous liquor, and infections: Which some, even of the
minutest animals, are provided with instruments to pierce the very solid
substances of trees and plants, and infuse their pestiferous taint;
where likewise they leave their eggs, boaring those nestling places with
a certain _terebra_, where we find those innumerable perforations which
we call worm-eaten; the wider _latebrae_ are made by _erucae_,
caterpillars, ants, and bigger insects, raising morbid tumors and
excrescences, and preying upon the fruit, as well as on the leaves, buds
and flowers, so soon as their eggs are hatch'd, when they creep out of
their little caverns in armies, like the Egyptian locusts, invading all
that's green, and tender rudiments first, and then attacking the
tougher and solider parts of vegetables: To those learned persons above,
we may not forget the late worthy and pious Mr. Ray, where in the second
part of his treatise, of the _Wisdom of God in the Creation_, we have a
brief, but ingenious account of what concerns this subject, together
with what is added about spontaneous productions of these despicable
animals, to which I refer the curious.

Trees (especially fruit-bearers) are infested with the measels, by being
burned and scorched with the sun in great droughts: To this commonly
succeeds lousiness, which is cur'd by boring an hole into the principal
root, and pouring in a quantity of brandy, stopping the orifice up with
a pin of the same wood.

Crooked trees are reform'd by taking off or topping the praeponderers,
whilst charg'd with leaves, or woody and hanging counterpoises.

Excorticated and bark-bared trees, may be preserved by nourishing up a
shoot from the foot, or below the stripped place, and inserting it into
a slit above the wounded part; to be done in the Spring, and secur'd
from air, as you treat a graff: This I have out of the very industrious
Mr. Cook, p. 48. But Dr. Merret brought us in this relation to the Royal
Society, that making a square section of the rinds of ash, and sycomore
(March 1664,) whereof three sides were cut, and one not, the success
was, that the whole bark did unite, being bound with pack-thread,
leaving only a scar: But being separated intirely from the tree, namely
several parts of the bark, and at various depths, leaving on some part
of the bark, others cut to the very wood it self, being tied on as the
former, a new rind succeeded in their place; but what was cover'd over
beyond the places of incision with diachylon plaister, and also bound
as the rest, did within the space of three weeks, unite to the tree,
tho' with some shriveling and scar: The same experiment try'd about
Michaelmas, and in the Winter, came to nothing: Where some branches were
decorticated quite round, without any union, a withering of the branch
beyond the incision, ensu'd: Also a twig separated from a branch, with a
sloping cut, and fastn'd to it again in the same posture, bound and
cover'd with the former plaister, wither'd in three days time: Among
other easie remedies, a cere-cloth of fresh-butter and hony, apply'd
whilst the wound is green, (especially in Summer) and bound about with a
thrum-rope of moist hay, and rubb'd with cow-dung has healed many: But
for rare and more tender trees, after pruning, take purely refined
tallow, mingled and well harden'd with a little loamy earth, and
horse-dung newly made.

Dr. Plot speaks of an elm growing near the bowling-green at
Magdalen-College, quite round disbark'd almost for a yard near the
ground, which yet flourishes exceedingly; upon which he dilates into an
accurate discourse, how it should possibly be; all trees being held to
receive their nutrition between the wood and the bark, and to perish
upon their separation; this tree being likewise hollow as a drum, and
its outmost surface (where decorticated) dry, and dead. The solution of
this phaenomenon (and to all appearance, from the verdant head) could
not have been more philosophically resolv'd, than by the hypothesis
there produc'd by the Doctor, who assures me, he was yet deliberating
whether the tree being hollow, it might not possibly proceed from some
other latent cause, as afterwards he discover'd when having obtain'd
permission to open the body of it, he found another elm, letting down
its stem all the length of this empty case, and striking root when it
came to the earth, from whence it deriv'd nourishment, maintains a
flourishing top, and has (till now) pass'd for a little miracle, as it
still may do for a thing extraordinary, and rare enough; considering not
only its passage, and how it should come there, unless haply some of the
_samera_, or seed of the old tree (when pregnant) should have luckily
fallen down within the hollow pipe, or (as might be conjectur'd) from
some sucker springing of a juicy root: But the strange incorporating of
the superior part of the bole, with the old hollow tree which embraces
it, not by any perceptible roots, but as if it were but one body with
it, whilst the rest of the vaginated stem touches no other part of the
whole cavity, till it comes to the ground, is surprizing. This being
besides very extraordinary, that a tree, which naturally grows taper as
it approaches the top, should swell, and become bigger there than it is
below. But this the Doctor will himself render a more minute account of
in the next impression of that excellent piece of his; nor had I
anticipated it on this occasion, but to let the world know (in the mean
time) how ingenuously ready he is to acknowlege the mistake, as he has
been successful in discovering it.

Deer, conies, and hares, by barking the trees in hard Winters, spoil
very many tender plantations: Next to the utter destroying them, there
is nothing better than to anoint that part which is within their reach,
with _stercus humanum_, tempered with a little water, or urine, and
lightly brushed on; this renewed after every great rain: But a cleanlier
than this, and yet which conies, and even cattle most abhor, is to
water, or sprinkle them with tanners liquor, _viz._ that, which they use
for dressing their hides; or to wash with slak'd lime and water,
altogether as expedient: Also to tye thumb-bands of hay and straw round
them as far as they can reach.

8. Moss, (which is an adnascent plant) is to be rubb'd and scrap'd off
with some fit instrument of wood, which may not excorticate the tree, or
with a piece of hair-cloth after a sobbing rain; or by setting it on
fire with a wisp of straw, about the end of December, if the season be
dry, as they practise it in Stafford-shire; but the most infallible art
of emuscation, is taking away the cause, (which is superfluous moisture
in clayie and spewing grounds) by dressing with lime.

9. Ivy is destroy'd by digging up the roots and loosning its hold: And
yet even ivy it self (the destruction of many fair trees) if very old,
and where it has long invested its support, if taken off) does
frequently kill the tree, by a too sudden exposure to the unaccustom'd
cold: Of the roots of ivy (which with small industry may be made a
beautiful standard) are made curiously polish'd, and fleck'd cups and
boxes, and even tables of great value. Misselto, and other excrescences
to be cut and broken off. But the _fungi_ (which prognosticate a fault
in the liver and entrails of trees, as we may call it) is remedied by
abrasion, friction, interlucation and exposure to the sun.

10. The bodies of trees are visited with canker, hollowness, hornets,
earwigs, snails, &c.

11. The wind-shock is a bruise, and shiver throughout the tree, though
not constantly visible, yet leading the warp from smooth renting, caused
by over-powerful winds, when young, and perhaps, by subtil lightnings,
by which the strongest oaks (and other the most robust trees) are fain
to submit, and will be twisted like a rope of hemp, and therefore of old
not us'd to kindle the sacrifice. The same injury trees likewise often
suffer by rigorous and piercing colds and frosts; such as in the year
1683, rived many stately timber-trees from head to foot; which as the
weather grew milder, clos'd again, so as hardly to be discern'd; but
were found at the felling miserably shatter'd, and good for little: The
best prevention is shelter, choice of place for the plantation, frequent
shreading, whilst they are yet in their youth. Wind-shaken is also
discover'd by certain ribs, boils and swellings on the bark, beginning
at the foot of the stem, and body of the tree, to the boughs. But
against such frosts and fire from heaven there is no charm.

12. Cankers, of all other diseases the most pernicious, corroding and
eating to the heart, and difficult to cure, whether (caused by some
stroak, or galling, or by hot and burning land) are to be cut out to the
quick, the scars emplastred with tar mingled with oyl, and over that, a
thin spreading of loam; or else with clay and horse-dung; but best with
hogs-dung alone, bound to it in a rag; or by laying wood-ashes, nettles,
or fern to the roots, &c. You will know if the cure be effected, by the
colour of the wounds growing fresh and green, and not reddish: But if
the gangreen be within, it must be cured by nitrous, sulphureous and
drying applications, and by no means, by any thing of an unctious
nature, which is exitial to trees: Tar, as was said, only excepted,
which I have experimentally known to preserve trees from the envenom'd
teeth of goats, and other injuries; the entire stem smear'd over,
without the least prejudice, to my no small admiration: But for over-hot
and torrid land, you must sadden the mould about the root with pond-mud,
and neats-dung; and by graffing fruit trees on stocks rais'd in the same
mould, as being more homogeneous.

13. Hollowness, is contracted, when by reason of the ignorant, or
careless lopping of a tree, the wet is suffer'd to fall perpendicularly
upon a part, especially the head, or any other part or arms, in which
the rain getting in, is conducted to the very heart of the stem and body
of the tree, which it soon rots: In this case, if there be sufficient
sound wood, cut it to the quick, and close to the body cap the hollow
part with a tarpaulin, or fill it with good stiff loam, horse-dung and
fine hay mingled, or with well-temper'd mortar, covering it with a piece
of tarpaulin: This is one of the worst of evils, and to which the elm is
most obnoxious. Old broken boughs, if very great, are to be cut off at
some distance from the body, but the smaller, close.

14. Hornets and wasps, &c. by breeding in the hollowness of trees, not
only infect them, but will peel them round to the very timber, as if
cattle had unbark'd them, as I observed in some goodly ashes at
Casioberry (near the garden of that late noble Lord, and lover of
planting, the Earl of Essex), and are therefore to be destroy'd, by
stopping up their entrances with tar and goose-dung, or by conveying the
fumes of brimstome into their cells: _Cantharides_ attack the ash above
all other bobs of the betle kind: Chafers, &c. are to be shaken down and
crush'd, and when they come in armies, (as sometimes in extraordinary
droughts) they are to be driven away or destroy'd with smoaks; which
also kills gnats and flies of all sorts: Note, that the rose-bug never,
or very seldom, attacks any other tree, whilst that sweet bush is in
flower: Whole fields have been freed from worms by the reek and smoak of
ox-dung wrapt in mungy straw, well soak'd with strong lie.

15. Earwigs and snails do seldom infest forest-trees, but those which
are fruit-bearers; and are destroy'd by setting boards or tiles against
the walls, or the placing of neat-hoofs, or any hollow thing upon small
stakes; also by enticing them into sweet waters, and by picking the
snails off betimes in the morning, and rainy evenings; I advise you
visit your cypress-trees on the first rains in April; you shall
sometimes find them cover'd with young snails no bigger than small
pease: Lastly, branches, buds and leaves extreamly suffer from the
blasts, jaundies, and catterpillars, locusts, rooks, &c. Note, that you
should visit the boards, tiles and hoofs which you set for the retreat
of those insects, &c. in the heat of the day, to shake them out, and
kill them.

16. The blasted parts of trees (and so should gum) be cut away to the
quick; and to prevent it, smoak them in suspicious weather, by burning
moist straw with the wind, or rather the dry and superfluous cuttings of
aromatic plants, such as rosemary, lavender, juniper, bays, &c. I use to
whip and chastise my cypresses with a wand, after their winter-burnings,
till all the mortified and scorch'd parts fly-off in dust, as long
almost as any will fall, and observe that they recover and spring the
better. Mice, moles and pismires cause the jaundies in trees, known by
the discolour of the leaves and buds.

17. The moles do much hurt, by making hollow passages, which grow
musty, but they may be taken in traps, and kill'd, as every woodman
knows: It is certain that they are driven from their haunts by garlick
for a time, and other heady smells, buried in their passages.

18. Mice, rats, with traps, or by sinking some vessel almost level with
the surface of the ground, the vessel half full of water, upon which let
there be strew'd some hulls, or chaff of oats; also with bane, powder of
orpiment in milk, and aconites mix'd with butter: _Cop'ras_ or
green-glass broken with honey: Morsels of sponge chopp'd small and fry'd
in lard, &c. are very fit baits to destroy these nimble creatures, which
else soon will ruin a semination of nuts, acorns and other kernels in a
night or two, and rob the largest beds of a nursery, carrying them away
by thousands to their cavernous magazines, to serve them all the Winter:
I have been told, that hop-branches stuck about trees, preserve them
from these theivish creatures.

19. Destroy pismires with scalding water, and disturbing their hills, or
rubbing the stem with cow-dung, or a decoction of _tithymale_, washing
the infested parts; and this will insinuate, and chase them quite out of
the chinks and crevices, without prejudice to the tree, and is a good
prevention of other infirmities; also by laying soot, sea-coal, or
saw-dust, or refuse tobacco where they haunt, often renew'd, especially
after rain; for becoming moist, the dust and powder harden, and then
they march over it.

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