Short Studies on Great Subjects

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What would Mr. Carlyle say of it, we thought, with his might and right?
'The just thing in the long run is the strong thing.' But Reineke had a
long run out and came in winner. Does he only 'seem to succeed?' Who
does succeed, then, if he no more than seems? The vulpine intellect
knows where the geese live, it is elsewhere said; but among Reineke's
victims we do not remember one goose, in the literal sense of goose; and
as to geese metaphorical, the whole visible world lies down complacently
at his feet. Nor does Mr. Carlyle's expressed language on this very poem
serve any better to help us--nay, it seems as if he feels uneasy in the
neighbourhood of so strong a rascal, so briefly he dismisses him.
'Worldly prudence is the only virtue which is certain of its reward.'
Nay, but there is more in it than that: no worldly prudence would
command the voices which have been given in to us for Reineke.

Three only possibilities lay now before us: either we should, on
searching, find something solid in the Fox's doings to justify success;
or else the just thing was not always the strong thing; or it might be,
that such very semblance of success was itself the most miserable
failure; that the wicked man who was struck down and foiled, and foiled
again, till he unlearnt his wickedness, or till he was disabled from any
more attempting it, was blessed in his disappointment; that to triumph
in wickedness, and to continue in it and to prosper to the end, was the
last, worst penalty inflicted by the divine vengeance. [Greek: Hin'
athanatos e adikos on]--to go on with injustice through this world and
through all eternity, uncleansed by any purgatorial fire, untaught by
any untoward consequence to open his eyes and to see in its true
accursed form the miserable demon to which he has sold himself--this, of
all catastrophes which could befal an evil man, was the deepest, lowest,
and most savouring of hell, which the purest of the Grecian moralists
could reason out for himself,--under which third hypothesis many an
uneasy misgiving would vanish away, and Mr. Carlyle's broad aphorism
might be accepted by us with thankfulness.

It appeared, therefore, at any rate, to have to come to this--that if we
wanted a solution for our sphinx enigma, no OEdipus was likely to rise
and find it for us; and that if we wanted help, we must take it for
ourselves. This only we found, that if we sinned in our regard for the
unworthy animal, we shared our sin with the largest number of our own
sex; comforted with the sense of good fellowship, we went boldly to work
upon our consciousness; and the imperfect analysis which we succeeded in
accomplishing, we here lay before you, whoever you may be, who have
felt, as we have felt, a regard which was a moral disturbance to you,
and which you will be pleased if we enable you to justify--

Si quid novisti rectius istis,
Candidus imperti; si non, his uttere mecum.

Following the clue which was thrust into our hand by the marked
difference of the feelings of men upon the subject, from those of women,
we were at once satisfied that Reineke's goodness, if he had any, must
lay rather in the active than the passive department of life. The
negative obedience to prohibitory precepts, under which women are bound
as well as men, as was already too clear, we were obliged to surrender
as hopeless. But it seemed as if, with respect to men whose business is
to do, and to labour, and to accomplish, this negative test was a
seriously imperfect one; and it was quite as possible that a man who
unhappily had broken many prohibitions might yet exhibit positive
excellences, as that he might walk through life picking his way with the
utmost assiduity, risking nothing and doing nothing, not committing a
single sin, but keeping his talent carefully wrapt up in a napkin, and
get sent, in the end, to outer darkness for his pains, as an
unprofitable servant. And this appeared the more important to us, as it
was very little dwelt upon by religions or moral teachers: at the end of
six thousand years, the popular notion of virtue, as far as it could get
itself expressed, had not risen beyond the mere abstinence from certain
specific bad actions.

The king of the beasts forgives Reineke on account of the substantial
services which at various times he has rendered. His counsel was always
the wisest, his hand the promptest in cases of difficulty; and all that
dexterity, and politeness, and courtesy, and exquisite culture had not
been learnt without an effort, or without conquering many undesirable
tendencies in himself. Men are not born with any art in its perfection,
and Reineke had made himself valuable by his own sagacity and exertion.
Now, on the human stage, a man who has made himself valuable is certain
to be valued. However we may pretend to estimate men according to the
wrong things which they have done, or abstained from doing, we in fact
follow the example of Nobel, the king of the beasts: we give them their
places among us according to the service-ableness and capability which
they display. We might mention not a few eminent public servants, whom
the world delights to honour--ministers, statesmen, lawyers, men of
science, artists, poets, soldiers, who, if they were tried by the
negative test, would show but a poor figure; yet their value is too real
to be dispensed with; and we tolerate unquestionable wrong to secure the
services of eminent ability. The world really does this, and it always
has really done it from the beginning of the human history; and it is
only indolence or cowardice which has left our ethical teaching halting
so far behind the universal and necessary practice. Even questionable
prima donnas, in virtue of their sweet voices, have their praises hymned
in drawing-room and newspaper, and applause rolls over them, and gold
and bouquets shower on them from lips and hands which, except for those
said voices, would treat them to a ruder reward. In real fact, we take
our places in this world, not according to what we are not, but
according to what we are. His Holiness Pope Clement, when his
audience-room rang with furious outcries for justice on Benvenuto
Cellini, who, as far as half-a-dozen murders could form a title, was as
fair a candidate for the gallows as ever swung from that unlucky wood,
replied, 'All this is very well, gentlemen: these murders are bad
things, we know that. But where am I to get another Benvenuto if you
hang this one for me?'

Or, to take an acknowledged hero, one of the old Greek sort, the theme
of the song of the greatest of human poets, whom it is less easy to
refuse to admire than even our friend Reineke. Take Ulysses. It cannot
be said that he kept his hands from taking what was not his, or his
tongue from speaking what was not true; and if Frau Ermelyn had to
complain (as indeed there was too much reason for her complaining) of
certain infirmities in her good husband Reineke, Penelope, too, might
have urged a thing or two, if she had known as much about the matter as
we know, which the modern moralist would find it hard to excuse.

After all is said, the capable man is the man to be admired. The man who
tries and fails, what is the use of him? We are in this world to do
something--not to fail in doing it. Of your bunglers--helpless,
inefficient persons, 'unfit alike for good or ill,' who try one thing,
and fail because they are not strong enough, and another, because they
have not energy enough, and a third, because they have no
talent--inconsistent, unstable, and therefore never to excel, what shall
we say of them? what use is there in them? what hope is there of them?
what can we wish for them? [Greek: to mepot' einai pant' ariston]. It
were better for them they had never been born. To be able to do what a
man tries to do, that is the first requisite; and given that, we may
hope all things for him. 'Hell is paved with good intentions,'the
proverb says; and the enormous proportion of bad successes in this life
lie between the desire and the execution. Give us a man who is able to
do what he settles that he desires to do, and we have the one thing
indispensable. If he can succeed doing ill, much more he can succeed
doing well. Show him better, and, at any rate, there is a chance that he
will do better.

We are not concerned here with Benvenuto or with Ulysses further than to
show, through the position which we all consent to give them, that there
is much unreality in our common moral talk, against which we must be on
our guard. And if we fling off an old friend, and take to affecting a
hatred of him which we do not feel, we have scarcely gained by the
exchange, even though originally our friendship may have been misplaced.

Capability no one will deny to Reineke. That is the very _differentia_
of him. An 'animal capable' would be his sufficient definition. Here is
another very genuinely valuable feature about him--his wonderful
singleness of character. Lying, treacherous, cunning scoundrel as he is,
there is a wholesome absence of humbug about him. Cheating all the
world, he never cheats himself; and while he is a hypocrite, he is
always a conscious hypocrite--a form of character, however paradoxical
it may seem, a great deal more accessible to good influences than the
other of the unconscious sort. Ask Reineke for the principles of his
life, and if it suited his purpose to tell you, he could do so with the
greatest exactness. There would be no discrepancy between the profession
and the practice. He is most truly single-minded, and therefore stable
in his ways, and therefore, as the world goes, and in the world's sense,
successful. Whether really successful is a question we do not care here
to enter on; but only to say this--that of all unsuccessful men in every
sense, either divine, or human, or devilish, there is none equal to
Bunyan's Mr. Facing-both-ways--the fellow with one eye on heaven and one
on earth--who sincerely preaches one thing, and sincerely does another;
and from the intensity of his unreality is unable either to see or feel
the contradiction. Serving God with his lips, and with the half of his
mind which is not bound up in the world, and serving the devil with his
actions, and with the other half, he is substantially trying to cheat
both God and the devil, and is, in fact, only cheating himself and his
neighbours. This, of all characters upon the earth, appears to us to be
the one of whom there is no hope at all--a character becoming, in these
days, alarmingly abundant; and the abundance of which makes us find even
in a Reineke an inexpressible relief.

But what we most thoroughly value in him is his capacity. He can do what
he sets to work to do. That blind instinct with which the world shouts
and claps its hand for the successful man, is one of those latent
impulses in us which are truer than we know; it is the universal
confessional to which Nature leads us, and, in her intolerance of
disguise and hypocrisy, compels us to be our own accusers. Whoever can
succeed in a given condition of society, can succeed only in virtue of
fulfilling the terms which society exacts of him; and if he can fulfil
them triumphantly, of course it rewards him and praises him. He is what
the rest of the world would be, if their powers were equal to their
desires. He has accomplished what they all are vaguely, and with
imperfect consistency, struggling to accomplish; and the character of
the conqueror--the means and appliances by which he has climbed up that
great pinnacle on which he stands victorious, the observed of all
observers, is no more than a very exact indicator of the amount of real
virtue in the age, out of which he stands prominent.

We are forced to acknowledge that it was not a very virtuous age in
which Reineke made himself a great man; but that was the fault of the
age as much as the fault of him. His nature is to succeed wherever he
is. If the age had required something else of him, then he would have
been something else. Whatever it had said to him, 'Do, and I will make
you my hero,' that Reineke would have done. No appetite makes a slave of
him--no faculty refuses obedience to his will. His entire nature is
under perfect organic control to the one supreme authority. And the one
object for which he lives, and for which, let his lot have been cast in
whatever century it might, he would always have lived, is to rise, to
thrive, to prosper, and become great.

The world as he found it said to him--Prey upon us; we are your oyster,
let your wit open us. If you will only do it cleverly--if you will take
care that we shall not close upon your fingers in the process, you may
devour us at your pleasure, and we shall feel ourselves highly honoured.
Can we wonder at a fox of Reineke's abilities taking such a world at its
word?

And let it not be supposed that society in this earth of ours is ever so
viciously put together, is ever so totally without organic life, that a
rogue, unredeemed by any merit, can prosper in it. There is no strength
in rottenness; and when it comes to that, society dies and falls in
pieces. Success, as it is called, even worldly success, is impossible,
without some exercise of what is called moral virtue, without some
portion of it, infinitesimally small, perhaps, but still some. Courage,
for instance, steady self-confidence, self-trust, self-reliance--that
only basis and foundation stone on which a strong character can rear
itself--do we not see this in Reineke? While he lives, he lives for
himself; but if he comes to dying, he can die like his betters; and his
wit is not of that effervescent sort which will fly away at the sight of
death and leave him panic-stricken. It is true there is a meaning to
that word courage, which was perhaps not to be found in the dictionary
in which Reineke studied. 'I hope I am afraid of nothing, Trim,' said my
uncle Toby, 'except doing a wrong thing.' With Reineke there was no
'except.' His digestive powers shrank from no action, good or bad, which
would serve his turn. Yet it required no slight measure of courage to
treat his fellow-creatures with the steady disrespect with which Reineke
treats them. To walk along among them, regardless of any interest but
his own; out of mere wantonness to hook them up like so many
cock-chafers, and spin them for his pleasure; not like Domitian, with an
imperial army to hold them down during the operation, but with no other
assistance but his own little body and large wit; it was something to
venture upon. And a world which would submit to be so treated, what
could he do but despise?

To the animals utterly below ourselves, external to our own species, we
hold ourselves bound by no law. We say to them, _vos non vobis_, without
any uneasy misgivings. We rob the bees of their honey, the cattle of
their lives, the horse and the ass of their liberty. We kill the wild
animals that they may not interfere with our pleasures; and acknowledge
ourselves bound to them by no terms except what are dictated by our own
convenience. And why should Reineke have acknowledged an obligation any
more than we, to creatures so utterly below himself? He was so clever,
as our friend said, that he had a right. That he _could_ treat them so,
Mr. Carlyle would say, proves that he had a right.

But it is a mistake to say he is without a conscience. No bold creature
is ever totally without one. Even Iago shows some sort of conscience.
Respecting nothing else in heaven or earth, he respects and even
reverences his own intellect. After one of those sweet interviews with
Roderigo, his, what we must call conscience, takes him to account for
his company; and he pleads to it in his own justification--

For I mine own gained knowledge should _profane_
Were I to waste myself with such a snipe
But for my sport and profit.

Reineke, if we take the mass of his misdeeds, preyed chiefly, like our
own Robin Hood, on rogues who were greater rogues than himself. If Bruin
chose to steal Rusteviel's honey, if Hintze trespassed in the priest's
granary, they were but taken in their own evildoings. And what is
Isegrim, the worst of Reineke's victims, but a great heavy, stupid,
lawless brute?--fair type, we will suppose, of not a few Front-de-Boeufs
and other so-called nobles of the poet's era, whose will to do mischief
was happily limited by their obtuseness. We remember that French
baron--Gilbert de Retz, we believe, was his name--who, like Isegrim, had
studied at the universities, and passed for learned, whose after-dinner
pastime for many years, as it proved at last, was to cut children's
throats for the pleasure of watching them die. We may well feel
gratitude that a Reineke was provided to be the scourge of such monsters
as these; and we have a thorough pure, exuberant satisfaction in seeing
the intellect in that little weak body triumph over them and trample
them down. This, indeed, this victory of intellect over brute force, is
one great secret of our pleasure in the poem, and goes far, in the
Carlyle direction, to satisfy us that, at any rate, it is not given to
mere base physical strength to win in the battle of life, even in times
when physical strength is apparently the only recognised power.

We are insensibly falling from our self-assumed judicial office into
that of advocacy; and sliding into what may be plausibly urged, rather
than standing fast on what we can surely affirm. Yet there are cases
when it is fitting for the judge to become the advocate of an undefended
prisoner; and advocacy is only plausible when a few words of truth are
mixed with what we say, like the few drops of wine which colour and
faintly flavour the large draught of water. Such few grains or drops,
whatever they may be, we must leave to the kindness of Reynard's friends
to distil for him, while we continue a little longer in the same strain.

After all, it may be said, what is it in man's nature which is really
admirable? It is idle for us to waste our labour in passing Reineke
through the moral crucible unless we shall recognise the results when we
obtain them; and in these moral sciences our analytical tests can only
be obtained by a study of our own internal experience. If we desire to
know what we admire in Reineke, we must look for what we admire in
ourselves. And what is that? Is it what on Sundays, and on set
occasions, and when we are mounted on our moral stilts, we are pleased
to call goodness, probity, obedience, humility? Is it? Is it really? Is
it not rather the face and form which Nature made--the strength which is
ours, we know not how--our talents, our rank, our possessions? It
appears to us that we most value in ourselves and most admire in our
neighbour, not acquisitions, but _gifts_. A man does not praise himself
for being good. If he praise himself he is not good. The first condition
of goodness is forgetfulness of self; and where self has entered, under
however plausible a form, the health is but skin-deep, and underneath
there is corruption. And so through everything; we value, we are vain
of, proud of, or whatever you please to call it, not what we have done
for ourselves, but what has been done for us--what has been given to us
by the upper powers. We look up to high-born men, to wealthy men, to
fortunate men, to clever men. Is it not so? Whom do we choose for the
county member, the magistrate, the officer, the minister? The good man
we leave to the humble enjoyment of his goodness, and we look out for
the able or the wealthy. And again of the wealthy, as if on every side
to witness to the same universal law, the man who with no labour of his
own has inherited a fortune, ranks higher in the world's esteem than his
father who made it. We take rank by descent. Such of us as have the
longest pedigree, and are therefore the farthest removed from the first
who made the fortune and founded the family, we are the noblest. The
nearer to the fountain, the fouler the stream; and that first ancestor,
who has soiled his fingers by labour, is no better than a parvenu.

And as it is with what we value, so it is with what we blame. It is an
old story, that there is no one who would not in his heart prefer being
a knave to being a fool; and when we fail in a piece of attempted
roguery, as Coleridge has wisely observed, though reasoning unwisely
from it, we lay the blame, not on our own moral nature, for which we are
responsible, but on our intellectual, for which we are not responsible.
We do not say what knaves, we say what fools, we have been; perplexing
Coleridge, who regards it as a phenomenon of some deep moral disorder;
whereas it is but one more evidence of the universal fact that _gifts_
are the true and proper object of appreciation; and as we admire men for
possessing gifts, so we blame them for their absence. The noble man is
the gifted man; the ignoble is the ungifted; and therefore we have only
to state a simple law in simple language to have a full solution of the
enigma of Reineke. He has gifts enough: of that, at least, there can be
no doubt; and if he lacks the gift to use them in the way which we call
good, at least he uses them successfully. His victims are less gifted
than he, and therefore less noble; and therefore he has a right to use
them as he pleases.

* * * * *

And, after all, what are these victims? Among the heaviest charges
which were urged against him was the killing and eating of that wretched
Scharfenebbe--Sharpbeak--the crow's wife. It is well that there are two
sides to every story. A poor weary fox, it seemed, was not to be allowed
to enjoy a quiet sleep in the sunshine but what an unclean carrion bird
must come down and take a peck at him. We can feel no sympathy with the
outcries of the crow husband over the fate of the unfortunate Sharpbeak.
Wofully, he says, he flew over the place where, a few moments before, in
the glory of glossy plumage, a loving wife sate croaking out her passion
for him, and found nothing--nothing but a little blood and a few torn
feathers--all else clean gone and utterly abolished. Well, and if it was
so, it was a blank prospect for him, but the earth was well rid of her;
and for herself, it was a higher fate to be assimilated into the body of
Reineke than to remain in a miserable individuality to be a layer of
carrion crows' eggs.

And then for Bellyn, and for Bruin, and for Hintze, and the rest, who
would needs be meddling with what was no concern of theirs--what is
there in them to challenge either regret or pity? They made love to
their occupation.

'Tis dangerous when the baser nature falls
Between the pass and fell incensed points
Of mighty opposites:
They lie not near our conscience.

Ah! if they were all. But there is one misdeed, one which outweighs all
others whatsoever--a crime which it is useless to palliate, let our
other friend say what he pleased; and Reineke himself felt it so. It
sate heavy, _for him_, on his soul, and alone of all the actions of his
life we are certain that he wished it undone--the death and eating of
that poor foolish Lampe, the hare. It was a paltry revenge in Reineke.
Lampe had told tales of him; he had complained that Reineke, under
pretence of teaching him his Catechism, had seized him and tried to
murder him; and though he provoked his fate by thrusting himself, after
such a warning, into the jaws of Malepartus, Reineke betrays an
uneasiness about it in confession; and, unlike himself, feels it
necessary to make some sort of an excuse.

Grimbart, the badger, Reineke's father confessor, had been obliged to
speak severely of the seriousness of the offence. 'You see,' Reineke
answers:--

To help oneself out through the world is a queer sort of business:
one can not
Keep, you know, quite altogether as pure as one can in the cloister.
When we are handling honey we now and then lick at our fingers.
Lampe sorely provoked me; he frisked about this way and that way,
Up and down, under my eyes, and he looked so fat and so jolly,
Really I could not resist it. I entirely forgot how I loved him.
And then he was so stupid.

But even this acknowledgment does not satisfy Reineke. His mind is
evidently softened, and it was on that occasion that he poured out his
pathetic lamentation over the sad condition of the world--so fluent, so
musical, so touching, that Grimbart listened with wide eyes, unable,
till it had run to the length of a sermon, to collect himself. It is
true that at last his office as ghostly father obliged him to put in a
slight demurrer:--

Uncle, the badger replied, why these are the sins of your neighbours;
Yours, I should think, were sufficient, and rather more now
to the purpose.

But he sighs to think what a bishop Reineke would have made.

And now, for the present, farewell to Reineke Fuchs, and to the song in
which his glory is enshrined--the Welt Bibel, Bible of this world, as
Goethe called it, the most exquisite moral satire, as we will call it,
which has ever been composed. It is not addressed to a passing mode of
folly or of profligacy, but it touches the perennial nature of mankind,
laying bare our own sympathies, and tastes, and weaknesses, with as keen
and true an edge as when the living world of the old Swabian poet winced
under its earliest utterance.

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