Carpentry for Boys
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J. S. Zerbe >> Carpentry for Boys
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CARPENTRY
A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO
IT"
INTRODUCTORY
Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the
knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any
trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw,
and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The
value is in knowing how to use them.
The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy
recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools.
There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in
order to become efficient.
The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to
weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered
dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the
mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to
produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an
expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree,
and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of
manual training work.
But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which
is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress,
even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind
has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all
the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same
time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the
muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating
his mind.
There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may
be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle
of the body.
The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special
muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of
his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor
exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation,
summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the
value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation.
It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not
to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what
tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be
made most serviceable, and used most advantageously.
It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is
made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and
tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a
base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an
imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim
of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is
learning how to bring each individual part to perfection.
If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each
structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a
definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later
develop into an initiative of his own.
It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will
be merely a machine or an intelligent organism.
This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the
fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines
every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is
necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is
devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and
defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved.
Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially
drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in
books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers'
tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of
a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have
illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach
the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he
may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in
the art.
CHAPTER I
TOOLS AND THEIR USES
KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first
and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use
the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses
will now be explained.
A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work
should embrace the following:
1. A Hatchet.
2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred.
3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
5. Wooden Mallet.
6. Jack Plane.
7. Smoothing Plane.
8. Compass Saw.
9. Brace.
10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter.
11. Several small Gimlets.
12. Square.
13. Compass.
14. Draw-knife.
15. Rule.
16. Two Gages.
17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
18. Two Mortising Chisels.
19. Small Back Saw.
20. Saw Clamps.
21. Miter Box.
22. Bevel Square.
23. Small Hand Square.
24. Pliers.
25. Pair of Awls.
26. Hand Clamps.
27. Set Files.
28. Glue Pot.
29. Oil Stone.
30. Grindstone.
31. Trusses.
32. Work Bench.
33. Plumb Bob.
34. Spirit Level.
THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side,
and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing
hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the
edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot
be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a
heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in
emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used
to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the
hatchet when used for trimming material.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for
drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will
be of great service as the education proceeds.
One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for
which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of
it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw,
for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid,
used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.
CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that
in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in
the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly
show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for
ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle,
will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold
or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for
cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has
uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.
PLANES.--The plane may be called the aesthetic tool in the carpenter's
kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory
when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be
referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses
only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the
jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the
board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or
fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of
finished surfaces.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._]
THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so
it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the
curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging
into the planed surface.
On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are
ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads,
rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so
that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_).
GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but
it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an
adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in
making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which
projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the
edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be
followed.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._]
This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be
fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the
mortise or tenon.
CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig.
7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a
full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches.
The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and
the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains
or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
where sharp-end tools are required.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other
hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting
edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for
mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for
driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.
[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._]
TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and
twenty inches in height.
SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard
wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.
THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be
small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used
excepting with plenty of water.
[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to
tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the
little things that contribute to success and should be carefully
observed.
THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made
of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as
shown.
[Illustration: _Fig. 9._]
THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved
form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools,
conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly
concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress
on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every
tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with
chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the
indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the
outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will
save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.
One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on
trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration
shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy,
and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of
the tools from being thrown to the floor.
In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary
holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work
bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a
leaning position against a truss or work bench.
_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the
cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made
that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting
edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the
tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep
the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept
to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a
depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.
If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a
workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon
become a pleasure to follow.
CHAPTER II
HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS
CARE OF TOOLS.--Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an
experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to
keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to
sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work,
it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way.
There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which
should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular
way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw
not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the
life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its
cutting edge is square and at the right working angle.
FIRST REQUISITE.--A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until
he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.
SAWS.--As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote
some space to the subject. _First_, as to setting the saw. The object of
this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the
blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many
so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on
wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting
accurately.
[Illustration: _Fig. 10._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 10a._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 11._]
HOW TO SET.--To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth
the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend
out the whole tooth, and not the point only.
In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is
wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10_a_. The whole tooth is bent,
showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and
following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side,
each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in
the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are
inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only
the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out,
and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor.
Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface.
[Illustration: _Fig. 12._]
Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the
principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of
which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.
SIMPLE SAW SETTER.--Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four
inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through
it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely
fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the
upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going
back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees.
[Illustration: _Fig. 13. Rip-Saw._]
FILING ANGLES.--In its proper place will be shown how you may easily
calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of
wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal
piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as
a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the
inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a
hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on
the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth
wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will
see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and
hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling
out.
[Illustration: _Fig. 14. cross-cut._]
FILING.--The next step is the filing. Two things must be observed: the
pitch and the angle. By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the teeth of a rip saw. You
will see at A that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw, the
pitch (B) is about 10 degrees off. The teeth of the rip saw are also
larger than those of the cross-cut.
THE ANGLE OF FILING.--By angle is meant the cutting position of the
file. In Fig. 12, the lines B represent the file disposed at an angle
of 12 degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut the angle of the
file may be less.
SAW CLAMPS.--You may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows:
Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches wide, seven-eighths of
an inch thick, and equal in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an edge (B) about
one-eighth of an inch thick. At one end cut away the corner on the side
opposite the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit on the saw
around the saw handle.
[Illustration: _Fig. 15._]
When the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the
jaws of the vise, you are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
following _filing suggestions_: Always hold the file horizontal or
level. In filing, use the whole length of the file. Do the work by a
slow, firm sweep.
Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation, but only
the alternate teeth, so as to keep the file at the same angle, and thus
insure accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one
angle for the alternate set of teeth.
Give the same number of strokes, and exert the same pressure on the file
for each tooth, to insure uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy
and straight movement back and forth with the file.
THE FILE.--In order to experiment with the filing motion, take two
blocks of wood, and try surfacing them off with a file. When you place
the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be
convex, because the hands, in filing, unless you exert the utmost
vigilance, will assume a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to
file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling
on each other. Before shaping and planing machines were invented,
machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off
surfaces with a file.
In using the files on saws, however small the file may be, one hand
should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file.
A file brush should always be kept on hand, as it pays to preserve files
by cleaning them.
[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
THE GRINDSTONE.--As most of the tools require a grindstone for
sharpening purposes, an illustration is given as a guide, with a diagram
to show the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright (A) of the
frame serves as a line for the eye, so that if the point of the tool is
brought to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, you will always
be able to maintain the correct angle. There is no objection to
providing a rest, for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually avoids them for two
reasons: First, because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better
control of it. There is only one thing which can be said in favor of a
rest, and that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially, as
all stones have soft spots or sides.
IN THE USE OF GRINDSTONES.--There are certain things to avoid and to
observe in the use of stones. Never use one spot on the stone, however
narrow the tool may be. Always move the tool from side to side. Never
grind a set of narrow tools successively. If you have chisels to grind
intersperse their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other broad
cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein.
Never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray.
[Illustration: _Fig. 17. Correct manner of holding tool._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Incorrect way of holding tool._]
CORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--There is a correct way to hold
each tool; see illustration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp the
tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and the right hand should
loosely hold the tool behind the left hand. There is a reason for this
which will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The firm grasp of
the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade, so it cannot
turn, and when inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid hold
will prevent the blade from turning, and thus enable you to correct the
inequalities of the stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken care
of just as much as the tools. An experienced workman is known by the
condition of his tools, and the grindstone is the best friend he has
among his tools.
INCORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--The incorrect way of holding a
tool is shown in Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way in which
the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of
both hands are on top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
the tool may turn. The result is that the corners of the tool will dig
into the stone to a greater or less degree, particularly if it has a
narrow blade, like a chisel.
Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the
incorrect way; and then grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will
at once see the difference.
The left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum, whereas the right
hand controls the angle of the tool.
[Illustration: _Fig. 19._]
These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits and tools of that
character, but it is obvious that a drawknife, which is always held by
the handles in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot be held
in the same manner.
A too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone. This is
wrong. Do not try to force the grinding.
Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the
tool. The stone should always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
forming a feather edge.
THE PLANE.--Indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided. Never use
the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is the
proper tool for this work. On the other hand, the fore plane should
invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved
edge, it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print
surface.
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