EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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9. THE BABYLONIANS AND THE EGYPTIANS

INHABITANTS OF BABYLONIA

The earliest inhabitants of Babylonia of whom we know anything were a
people called Sumerians. They entered the Babylonian plain through the
passes of the eastern mountains, three or four thousand years before the
Christian era. Here they formed a number of independent states, each with
its capital city, its patron god, and its king. After them came Semitic
tribes from the deserts of northern Arabia. The Semites mingled with the
Sumerians and adopted Sumerian civilization.

HAMMURABI, KING OF BABYLONIA, ABOUT 2000 B.C.

Of all the early Babylonian kings the most famous was Hammurabi. Some
inscriptions still remain to tell how he freed his country from foreign
invaders and made his native Babylon the capital of the entire land. This
city became henceforth the real center of the Euphrates valley, to which,
indeed, it gave its name. Hammurabi was also an able statesman, who sought
to develop the territories his sword had won. He dug great canals to
distribute the waters of the Euphrates and built huge granaries to store
the wheat against a time of famine. In Babylon he raised splendid temples
and palaces. For all his kingdom he published a code of laws, the oldest
in the world. [9] Thus Hammurabi, by making Babylonia so strong and
flourishing, was able to extend her influence in every direction. Her only
important rival was Egypt.

[Illustration: TOP OF MONUMENT CONTAINING THE CODE OF HAMMURABI (British
Museum, London)
A block of black diorite nearly 8 feet high, on which the code is chiseled
in 44 columns and over 3600 lines. The relief at the top of the monument
shows the Babylonian king receiving the laws from the sun god who is
seated at the right.]

The origin of the Egyptians is not known with certainty. In physical
characteristics they resembled the native tribes of northern and
inhabitants eastern Africa. Their language, however, shows of Egypt close
kinship to the Semitic tongues of western Asia and Arabia. It is probable
that the Egyptians, like the Babylonians, arose from the mingling of
several peoples.

MENES, KING OF EGYPT, ABOUT 3400 B.C.

The history of Egypt commences with the union of the two kingdoms of Upper
and Lower Egypt under Menes. An ancient tradition made him the builder of
Memphis, near the head of the Delta, and the founder of the Egyptian
monarchy. Scholars once doubted these exploits and even regarded Menes
himself as mythical. Recently, however, his tomb has been discovered. In
the gray dawn of history Menes appears as a real personage, the first of
that line of kings, or "Pharaohs," who for nearly three thousand years
ruled over Egypt.

[Illustration: Map, EGYPTIAN EMPIRE About 1450 B.C.]

THE PYRAMID KINGS, ABOUT 3000-2500 B.C.

Several centuries after Menes we reach the age of the kings who raised the
pyramids. Probably no other rulers have ever stamped their memory so
indelibly on the pages of history as the builders of these mighty
structures. The most celebrated monarch of this line was the Pharaoh whom
the Greeks called Cheops. The Great Pyramid near Memphis, erected for his
tomb, remains a lasting witness to his power.

[Illustration: TWO FAMOUS PHARAOHS
Khufu (Cheops) builder of the Great Pyramid
Menephtah the supposed Pharaoh of the Exodus]

[Illustration: THE GREAT PYRAMID
The pyramid when completed had a height of 481 feet. It is now 451 feet
high. Its base covers about thirteen acres. Some of the blocks of white
limestone used in construction weigh fifty tons. The facing of polished
stone was gradually removed for building purposes by the Arabs. On the
northern side of the pyramid a narrow entrance once carefully concealed,
opens into tortuous passages which lead to the central vault. Here the
sarcophagus of the king was placed. This chamber was long since entered
and its contents rifled.]

[Illustration: THE GREAT SPHINX
This colossal figure, human headed and lion bodied, is hewn from the
natural rock. The body is about 150 feet long, the paws 50 feet, the head
30 feet. The height from the base to the top of the head is 70 feet.
Except for its head and shoulders the figure has been buried for centuries
in the desert sand. The eyes, nose and beard have been mutilated by the
Arabs. The face is probably that of one of the pyramid kings.]

AFTER THE PYRAMID KINGS

For a long time after the epoch of the pyramid kings the annals of Egypt
furnish a record of quiet and peaceful progress. The old city of Memphis
gradually declined in importance and Thebes in Upper Egypt became the
capital. The vigorous civilization growing up in Egypt was destined,
however, to suffer a sudden eclipse. About 1800 B.C. barbarous tribes from
western Asia burst into the country, through the isthmus of Suez, and
settled in the Delta. The Hyksos, as they are usually called, extended
their sway over all Egypt. At first they ruled harshly, plundering the
cities and enslaving the inhabitants, but in course of time the invaders
adopted Egyptian culture and their kings reigned like native Pharaohs. The
Hyksos are said to have introduced the horse and military chariot into
Egypt. A successful revolt at length expelled the intruders and set a new
line of Theban monarchs on the throne.

THE EGYPTIAN EMPIRE

The overthrow of the Hyksos marked a new era in the history of Egypt. From
a home-loving and peaceful people the Egyptians became a warlike race,
ambitious for glory. The Pharaohs raised powerful armies and by extensive
conquests created an Egyptian Empire, reaching from the Nile to the
Euphrates.

IMPERIAL SPLENDOR OF EGYPT

This period of the imperial greatness of Egypt is the most splendid in its
history. An extensive trade with Cyprus, Crete, and other Mediterranean
Islands introduced many foreign luxuries. The conquered territories in
Syria paid a heavy tribute of the precious metals, merchandise, and
slaves. The forced labor of thousands of war captives enabled the Pharaohs
to build public works in every part on their realm. Even the ruins of
these stupendous structures are enough to indicate the majesty and power
of ancient Egypt.

RAMESES II, ABOUT 1292-1225 B.C.

Of all the conquering Pharaohs none won more fame than Rameses II, who
ruled for nearly seventy years. His campaigns in Syria were mainly against
the Hittites, a warlike people who had moved southward from their home in
Asia Minor and sought to establish themselves in the Syrian lands. Rameses
does not appear to have been entirely successful against his foes. We find
him at length entering into an alliance with "the great king of the
Hittites," by which their dominion over northern Syria was recognized. In
the arts of peace Rameses achieved a more enduring renown. He erected many
statues and temples in various parts of Egypt and made Thebes, his
capital, the most magnificent city of the age.

[Illustration: HEAD OF MUMMY OF RAMESES II (Museum of Gizeh)
The mummy was discovered in 1881 AD in an underground chamber near the
site of Thebes. With it were the coffins and bodies of more than a score
of royal personages. Rameses II was over ninety years of age at the time
of his death. In spite of the somewhat grotesque disguise of
mummification, the face of this famous Pharaoh still wears an aspect of
majesty and pride.]

DECLINE OF THE EGYPTIAN POWER

Rameses II was the last of the great Pharaohs. After his death the empire
steadily declined in strength. The Asiatic possessions fell away, never to
be recovered. By 1100 B.C. Egypt had been restricted to her former
boundaries in the Nile valley. The Persians, in the sixth century, brought
the country within their own vast empire.

10. THE PHOENICIANS AND THE HEBREWS

THE PHOENICIANS

The Phoenicians were the first Syrian people to assume importance. Their
country was a narrow stretch of coast, about one hundred and twenty miles
in length, seldom more than twelve miles in width, between the Lebanon
Mountains and the sea. This tiny land could not support a large
population. As the Phoenicians increased in numbers, they were obliged to
betake themselves to the sea. The Lebanon cedars furnished soft, white
wood for shipbuilding, and the deeply indented coast offered excellent
harbors. Thus the Phoenicians became preeminently a race of sailors. Their
great cities, Sidon and Tyre, established colonies throughout the
Mediterranean and had an extensive commerce with every region of the known
world.

THE HEBREWS

The Hebrews lived south of Phoenicia in the land of Canaan, west of the
Jordan River Their history begins with the emigration of twelve Hebrew
tribes (called Israelites) from northern Arabia to Canaan. In their new
home the Israelites gave up the life of wandering shepherds and became
farmers. They learned from the Canaanites to till the soil and to dwell in
towns and cities.

PERIOD OF THE JUDGES

The thorough conquest of Canaan proved to be no easy task. At first the
twelve Israelitish tribes formed only a loose and weak confederacy without
a common head. "In those days there was no king in Israel, every man did
what was right in his own eyes." [10] The sole authority was that held by
valiant chieftains and law-givers, such as Samson, Gideon, and Samuel, who
served as judges between the tribes and often led them in successful
attacks upon their foes. Among these were the warlike Philistines, who
occupied the southwestern coast of Canaan. To resist the Philistines with
success it was necessary to have a king who could bring all the scattered
tribes under his firm, well-ordered rule.

REIGNS OF SAUL AND DAVID

In Saul, "a young man and a goodly," the warriors of Israel found a leader
to unite them against their enemies. His reign was passed in constant
struggles with the Philistines. David, who followed him, utterly destroyed
the Philistine power and by further conquests extended the boundaries of
the new state. For a capital city he selected the ancient fortress of
Jerusalem. Here David built himself a royal palace and here he fixed the
Ark, the sanctuary of Jehovah. Jerusalem became to the Israelites their
dearest possession and the center of their national life.

[Illustration: Map, CANAAN as Divided among THE TRIBES]

REIGN OF SOLOMON, ABOUT 955-925 B.C.

The reign of Solomon, the son and successor of David, was the most
splendid period in Hebrew history. His kingdom stretched from the Red Sea
and the peninsula of Sinai northward to the Lebanon Mountains and the
Euphrates. With the surrounding peoples Solomon was on terms of friendship
and alliance. He married an Egyptian princess, a daughter of the reigning
Pharaoh. He joined with Hiram, king of Tyre, in trading expeditions on the
Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The same Phoenician monarch supplied him with
the "cedars of Lebanon," with which he erected at Jerusalem a famous
temple for the worship of Jehovah. A great builder, a wise administrator
and governor, Solomon takes his place as a typical Oriental despot, the
most powerful monarch of the age.

[Illustration: A PHOENICIAN WAR GALLEY
From a slab found at Nineveh in the palace of the Assyrian king,
Sennacherib. The vessel shown is a bireme with two decks. On the upper
deck are soldiers with their shields hanging over the side. The oarsmen
sit on the lower deck, eight at each side. The crab catching the fish is a
humorous touch.]

SECESSION OF THE TEN TRIBES, ABOUT 925 B.C.

But the political greatness of the Hebrews was not destined to endure. The
people were not ready to bear the burdens of empire. They objected to the
standing army, to the forced labor on public buildings, and especially to
the heavy taxes. The ten northern tribes seceded shortly after Solomon's
death and established the independent kingdom of Israel, with its capital
at Samaria. The two southern tribes, Judah and Benjamin, formed the
kingdom of Judea, and remained loyal to the successors of Solomon.

[Illustration: Map, SOLOMON'S KINGDOM]

DECLINE OF THE HEBREW POWER

The two small Hebrew kingdoms could not resist their powerful neighbors.
About two centuries after the secession of the Ten Tribes, the Assyrians
overran Israel. Judea was subsequently conquered by the Babylonians. Both
countries in the end became a part of the Persian Empire.

11. THE ASSYRIANS

GREATNESS OF ASSYRIA, 745-626 B.C.

Assyria, lying east of the Tigris River, was colonized at an early date by
emigrants from Babylonia. After the Assyrians freed themselves from
Babylonian control, they entered upon a series of sweeping conquests.
Every Asiatic state felt their heavy hand. The Assyrian kings created a
huge empire stretching from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf, the
Mediterranean, and the Nile. For the first time in Oriental history
Mesopotamia and Egypt, with the intervening territory, were brought under
one government.

CHARACTER OF ASSYRIAN RULE

This unification of the Orient was accomplished only at a fearful cost.
The records of Assyria are full of terrible deeds--of towns and cities
without number given to the flames, of the devastation of fertile fields
and orchards, of the slaughter of men, women, and children, of the
enslavement of entire nations. Assyrian monarchs, in numerous
inscriptions, boast of the wreck and ruin they brought to many flourishing
lands.

[Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN
From a Nineveh bas-relief. The original is colored.]

SARGON II, 722-705 B.C.

The treatment of conquered peoples by the Assyrian rulers is well
illustrated by their dealings with the Hebrews. One of the mightiest
monarchs was an usurper, who ascended the throne as Sargon II. Shortly
after his succession he turned his attention to the kingdom of Israel,
which had revolted. Sargon in punishment took its capital city of Samaria
(722 B.C.) and led away many thousands of the leading citizens into a
lifelong captivity in distant Assyria. The Ten Tribes mingled with the
population of that region and henceforth disappeared from history.

[Illustration: ANCIENT ORIENTAL EMPIRES
Map, THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE about 660 B.C.
Map, LYDIA, MEDIA, BABYLONIA and EGYPT about 550 B.C.]

SENNACHERIB, 705-681 B.C.

Sargon's son, Sennacherib, though not the greatest, is the best known of
Assyrian kings. His name is familiar from the many references to him in
Old Testament writings. An inscription by Sennacherib describes an
expedition against Hezekiah, king of Judea, who was shut up "like a caged
bird in his royal city of Jerusalem." Sennacherib, however, did not
capture the place. His troops were swept away by a pestilence. The ancient
Hebrew writer conceives it as the visitation of a destroying angel: "It
came to pass that night that the angel of Jehovah went forth, and smote in
the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand; and when
men arose early in the morning, behold, these were all dead bodies." [11]
So Sennacherib departed, and returned with a shattered army to Nineveh,
his capital.

[Illustration: AN ASSYRIAN RELIEF (British Museum, London)
The relief represents the siege and capture of Lachish, a city of the
Canaanites, by Sennacherib's troops. Notice the total absence of
perspective in this work.]

DOWNFALL OF ASSYRIA, 606 B.C.

Although Assyria recovered from this disaster, its empire rested on
unstable foundations. The subject races were attached to their oppressive
masters by no ties save those of force. When Assyria grew exhausted by its
career of conquest, they were quick to strike a blow for freedom. By the
middle of the seventh century Egypt had secured her independence, and many
other provinces were ready to revolt. Meanwhile, beyond the eastern
mountains, the Medes were gathering ominously on the Assyrian frontier.
The storm broke when the Median monarch, in alliance with the king of
Babylon, moved upon Nineveh and captured it. The city was utterly
destroyed.

[Illustration: THE ISHTAR GATE, BABYLON
Explorations on the site of Babylon have been conducted since 1899 A.D. by
the German Oriental Society. Large parts of the temple area, as well as
sections of the royal palaces, have been uncovered. The most important
structure found is the Ishtar Gate. The towers which flank it are adorned
with figures of dragons and bulls in brilliantly colored glazed tile.]

PARTITION OF ASSYRIA

After the conquest of the Assyrian Empire the victors proceeded to divide
the spoils. The share of Media was Assyria itself, together with the long
stretch of mountain country extending from the Persian Gulf to Asia Minor.
Babylonia obtained the western half of the Assyrian domains, including the
Euphrates valley and Syria. Under its famous king, Nebuchadnezzar (604-561
B.C.), Babylonia became a great power in the Orient. It was Nebuchadnezzar
who brought the kingdom of Judea to an end. He captured Jerusalem in 586
B.C., burned the Temple, and carried away many Jews into captivity. The
day of their deliverance, when Babylon itself should bow to a foreign foe,
was still far distant.

12. THE WORLD EMPIRE OF PERSIA

CYRUS THE GREAT, 553-529 B.C.

Not much earlier than the break-up of the Assyrian Empire, we find a new
and vigorous people pressing into western Iran. They were the Persians,
near kinsmen of the Medes. Subjects at first of Assyria, and then of
Media, they regained their independence and secured imperial power under a
conquering king whom history knows as Cyrus the Great. In 553 B.C. Cyrus
revolted against the Median monarch and three years later captured the
royal city of Ecbatana. The Medes and Persians formed henceforth a united
people.

[Illustration: THE TOMB OF CYRUS THE GREAT
The mausoleum is built of immense marble blocks joined together without
cement. Its total height including the seven steps is about thirty five
feet. A solitary pillar near the tomb still bears the inscription 'I am
Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian.']

CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS, 546 B.C.

The conquest of Media was soon followed by a war with the Lydians, who had
been allies of the Medes. The throne of Lydia, a state in the western part
of Asia Minor, was at this time held by Croesus, the last and most famous
of his line. The king grew so wealthy from the tribute paid by Lydian
subjects and from his gold mines that his name has passed into the
proverb, "rich as Croesus." He viewed with alarm the rising power of Cyrus
and rashly offered battle to the Persian monarch. Defeated in the open
field, Croesus shut himself up in Sardis, his capital. The city was soon
taken, however, and with its capture the Lydian kingdom came to an end.

CAPTURE OF BABYLON, 539 B.C.

The downfall of Lydia prepared the way for a Persian attack on Babylonia.
The conquest of that country proved unexpectedly easy. In 539 B.C. the
great city of Babylon opened its gates to the Persian host. Shortly
afterwards Cyrus issued a decree allowing the Jewish exiles there to
return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple, which Nebuchadnezzar had
destroyed. With the surrender of Babylon the last Semitic empire in the
East came to an end. The Medes and Persians, an Indo-European people,
henceforth ruled over a wider realm than ever before had been formed in
Oriental lands.

CAMBYSES, 529-522 B.C.

Cyrus was followed by his son, Cambyses, a cruel but stronghanded despot.
Cambyses determined to add Egypt to the Persian dominions. His land army
was supported by a powerful fleet, to which the Phoenicians and the Greeks
of Cyprus contributed ships. A single battle sufficed to overthrow the
Egyptian power and to bring the long rule of the Pharaohs to a close. [12]

DARIUS THE GREAT, 521-485 B.C.

The reign of Darius, the successor of Cambyses, was marked by further
extensions of the frontiers. An expedition to the distant East added to
the empire the region of the Punjab, [13] along the upper waters of the
Indus. Another expedition against the wild Scythian tribes along the
Danube led to conquests in Europe and brought the Persian dominions close
to those of the Greeks. Not without reason could Darius describe himself
in an inscription which still survives, as "the great king, king of kings,
king of countries, king of all men."

[Illustration: DARIUS WITH HIS ATTENDANTS
Bas-relief at Persepolis. The monarch's right hand grasps a staff or
scepter, his left hand, a bunch of flowers. His head is surmounted by a
crown, his body is enveloped in the long Median mantle. Above the king is
a representation of the divinity which guarded and guided him. In the rear
are two Persian nobles, one carrying the royal fan, the other the royal
parasol.]

[Illustration: ROCK SEPULCHERS OF THE PERSIAN KINGS
The tombs are those of Darius, Xerxes, and two of their successors. They
are near Persepolis.]

ORGANIZATION OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

It was the work of Darius to provide for his dominions a stable government
which should preserve what the sword had won. The problem was difficult.
The empire was a collection of many peoples widely different in race,
language, customs, and religion. Darius did not attempt to weld the
conquered nations into unity. As long as the subjects of Persia paid
tribute and furnished troops for the royal army, they were allowed to
conduct their own affairs with little interference from the Great King.

THE SATRAPAL SYSTEM

The entire empire, excluding Persia proper, was divided into twenty
satrapies, or provinces, each one with its civil governor, or satrap. The
satraps carried out the laws and collected the heavy tribute annually
levied throughout the empire. In most of the provinces there were also
military governors who commanded the army and reported directly to the
king. This device of intrusting the civil and military functions to
separate officials lessened the danger of revolts against the Persian
authority. As an additional precaution Darius provided special agents
whose business it was to travel from province to province and investigate
the conduct of his officials. It became a proverb that "the king has many
eyes and many ears."

PERSIAN ROADS

Darius also established a system of military roads throughout the Persian
dominions. The roads were provided at frequent intervals with inns, where
postmen stood always in readiness to take up a letter and carry it to the
next station. The Royal Road from Susa, the Persian capital, to Sardis in
Lydia was over fifteen hundred miles long; but government couriers, using
relays of fresh horses, could cover the distance within a week. An old
Greek writer declares with admiration that "there is nothing mortal more
swift than these messengers." [14]

UNION OF THE EAST UNDER PERSIA

The political history of the East fitly ends with the three Persian
conquerors, Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, who thus brought into their huge
empire every great state of Oriental antiquity. Medes and Persians,
Babylonians and Assyrians, Lydians, Syrians, and Egyptians--all were at
length united under a single dominion. In the reign of Darius this united
Orient first comes into contact with the rising power of the Greek states
of Europe. So we may leave its history here, resuming our narrative when
we discuss the momentous conflict between Persia and Greece, which was to
affect the course, not alone of Persian or Greek, but of all European
history. [15]

[Illustration: Map, THE PERSIAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT (About 500
B. C.)]

STUDIES

1. On the map Physical Map of Asia, section 7. Physical Asia, topic Grand
Divisions of Asia, see what regions of Asia are less than 500 feet above
sea level; less than 3000 feet; less than 9000 feet; less than 15,000
feet; over 15,000 feet.

2. On an outline map of the Orient indicate eight important rivers, two
gulfs, three inland seas, the great plateaus and plains, the principal
mountain ranges, two important passes, and the various countries and
cities mentioned in this chapter.

3. On an outline map draw the boundaries of the Persian Empire under
Darius, showing what parts were conquered by Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius,
respectively.

4. For what were the following places noted: Jerusalem; Thebes; Tyre;
Nineveh; and Babylon?

5. For what were the following persons famous: Hammurabi; Rameses II;
Solomon; Cyrus; Nebuchadnezzar; and Darius?

6. Define and illustrate these terms: empire, kingdom, province, tributary
state, satrapy.

7. Identity these dates: 606 B.C.; 539 B.C.; and 540 B.C.

8. Why was India better known in ancient times than China?

9. What modern countries are included within the limits of ancient Iran?

10. Why was a canal through the isthmus of Suez less needed in ancient
times than to-day?

11. Can you suggest any reasons why the sources of the Nile remained
unknown until late in the nineteenth century?

12. What is the origin of the name _Delta_ applied to such a region as
Lower Egypt?

13. Comment on the statement: "Egypt as a geographical expression is two
things--the Desert and the Nile. As a habitable country it is only one
thing--the Nile."

14. Why did the Greek traveler, Herodotus, call Egypt "the gift of the
Nile"?

15. Distinguish between Syria and Assyria.

16. What is the exact meaning of the words, _Hebrew_, _Israelite_, and
_Jew_? Describe some features of Assyrian warfare (illustration, page 35).