EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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STUDIES

1. Look up on the map between pages 358-359 the following places where
Gothic cathedrals are found: Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Reims, Amiens,
Chartres, Cologne, Strassburg, Burgos, Toledo, and Milan.

2. Look up on the map facing page 654 the location of the following
medieval universities: Oxford, Montpellier, Paris, Orleans, Cologne,
Leipzig, Prague, Naples, and Salamanca.

3. Explain the following terms: scholasticism; canon law; alchemy;
troubadours; Provencal language; transept; choir; flying buttress;
werewolf; and mumming.

4. Who were St. Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Gratian, Irnerius, and Roger
Bacon?

5. Show how Latin served as an international language in the Middle Ages.
Name two artificial languages which have been invented as a substitute for
Latin.

6. What is meant by saying that "French is a mere _patois_ of Latin"?

7. In what parts of the world is English now the prevailing speech?

8. Why has Siegfried, the hero of the _Nibelungenlied_, been called the
"Achilles of Teutonic legend"?

9. What productions of medieval literature reflect aristocratic and
democratic ideals, respectively?

10. Distinguish between the Romanesque and Gothic styles of architecture.
What is the origin of each term?

11. Compare the ground plans of a Greek temple (page 291), a Roman
basilica (page 284), and a Gothic cathedral (page 562).

12. Contrast a Gothic cathedral with a Greek temple, particularly in
regard to size, height, support of the roof, windows, and decorative
features.

13. Why is there some excuse for describing a Gothic building as "a wall
of glass with a roof of stone"?

14. Do you see any resemblance in structural features between a Gothic
cathedral and a modern "sky-scraper"?

15. Mention some likenesses between medieval and modern universities.

16. Mention some important subjects of instruction in modern universities
which were not treated in those of the Middle Ages.

17. Why has scholasticism been called "a sort of Aristotelian
Christianity"?

18. Look up the original meaning of the words "jovial," "saturnine,"
"mercurial," "disastrous," "contemplate," and "consider."

19. Show the indebtedness of chemistry to alchemy and of astronomy to
astrology.

20. Mention some common folk tales which illustrate medieval
superstitions.

21. Why was Friday regarded as a specially unlucky day?

22. Enumerate the most important contributions to civilization made during
the Middle Ages.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter xvii,
"Medieval Tales"; chapter xviii, "Three Medieval Epics."

[2] See pages 203, 322.

[3] The language spoken by the natives of Flanders. The country is now
divided between France, Belgium, and Holland. See page 549.

[4] Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandinavian. Danish and
Norwegian are practically the same, in fact, their literary or book-
language is one.

[5] Two names for rivers--_Avon_ and _Ex_--which in one form or another
are found in every part of England, are Celtic words meaning "water."

[6] See page 518.

[7] See page 309, note 1.

[8] See page 336.

[9] See page 386.

[10] See pages 284, 344.

[11] See page 283.

[12] The cathedral, baptistery, and campanile of Pisa form an interesting
example of Romanesque architecture. See the illustration, page 544.

[13] The interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, shows the ribs and
the beautiful tracery of the ceiling of a Gothic building. See the plate
facin page 570.

[14] The flying buttress is well shown in the view of Canterbury Cathedral
(page 324).

[15] See page 386.

[16] For the pointed arch see the view of Melrose Abbey (page 660).

[17] See the illustrations, pages 550, 551.

[18] See page 310.

[19] See pages 207, 331.

[20] See page 444.

[21] Latin _universitas_.

[22] See page 536.

[23] The method of the school (Latin _schola_).

[24] See pages 275 and 383.

[25] See page 618.

[26] See pages 133 and 608.

[27] See page 53.

[28] Greek _oneiros_, "dream."

[29] Greek _nekros_, "corpse."

[30] Charles Perrault's _Tales of Passed Times_ appeared at Paris in 1697
A.D. It included the now-familiar stories of "Bluebeard," "Cinderella,"
"Sleeping Beauty," and "Little Red Riding Hood." In 1812 A.D. the brothers
Grimm published their _Household Tales_, a collection of stories current
in Germany.

[31] See page 420.

[32] _Exodus_, xxii, 18.

[33] See page 428.

[34] See page 346.

[35] The great Passion Play at Ober Ammergau in Germany is the modern
survival and representative of this medieval religious drama.

[36] _Everyman_, one of the best of the morality plays, has recently been
revived before large audiences.

[37] See the illustration, page 408.

[38] Tacitus, _Germania_, 22.

CHAPTER XXV

THE RENAISSANCE [1]

209. MEANING OF THE RENAISSANCE

LATER PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, covering the later period of the
Middle Ages, are commonly known as those of the Renaissance. This French
word means Rebirth or Revival. It is a convenient term for all the changes
in society, law, and government, in science, philosophy, and religion, in
literature and art which gradually transformed medieval civilization into
that of modern times.

LIMITS OF THE RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance, just because of its transitional character, cannot be
exactly dated. Some Renaissance movements started before 1300 A.D. For
instance, the study of Roman law, as a substitute for Germanic customs,
began toward the close of the eleventh century. The rise of European
cities, with all that they meant for industry and commerce, belonged to
about the same time. Other Renaissance movements, again, extended beyond
1500 A.D. Among these were the expansion of geographical knowledge,
resulting from the discovery of the New World, and the revolt against the
Papacy, known as the Protestant Reformation. The Middle Ages, in fact,
came to an end at different times in different fields of human activity.

ORIGINAL HOME OF THE RENAISSANCE

The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth or revival of
men's interest in the literature and art of classical antiquity. Italy was
the original home of this Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it
found widest acceptance, and there it reached its highest development.
From Italy the Renaissance gradually spread beyond the Alps, until it had
made the round of western Europe.

ITALIAN CITIES OF THE RENAISSANCE

Italy, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, was a land particularly
favorable to the growth of learning and the arts. In northern Italy the
great cities of Milan, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many others had
early succeeded in throwing off their feudal burdens and had become
independent, self-governing communities. Democracy flourished in them, as
in the old Greek city-states. Noble birth counted for little; a man of
ability and ambition might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts
within their walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life
full, varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving
manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure, bred a taste
for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave means for the
gratification of that taste. People wanted to have about them beautiful
pictures, statuary, furniture, palaces, and churches; and they rewarded
richly the artists who could produce such things. It is not without
significance that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was
democratic, industrial, and wealthy Florence. [2]

INFLUENCE OF THE CLASSIC TRADITION

Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European countries in its
nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient Roman civilization, as
expressed in literature, art, and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever
they looked, they were reminded of the great past which once had been
theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece wholly lost. Greek traders and
the descendants of Greek colonists in Italy still used their ancient
language; all through the medieval centuries there were Italians who
studied Greek. The classic tradition thus survived in Italy and defied
oblivion.

BYZANTINE, ARABIC, AND NORMAN INFLUENCE

In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several civilizations.
Byzantine influence was felt both in the north and in the south. The
conquest of Sicily by the Arabs made the Italians familiar with the
science, art, and poetry of this cultivated people. After the Normans had
established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, they in turn
developed a brilliant civilization. [3] From all these sources flowed
streams of cultural influence which united in the Renaissance.

[Illustration: GHIBERTI'S BRONZE DOORS AT FLORENCE
The second or northern pair of bronze doors of the baptistery at Florence.
Completed by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452 A.D. after twenty seven years of
labor The ten panels represent scenes from Old Testament history.
Michelangelo pronounced these magnificent creations worthy to be the gates
of paradise.]

[Illustration: ST. PETER'S, ROME
St Peter's, begun in 1506 A.D., was completed in 1667, according to the
designs of Bramante, Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated
architects. It is the largest church in the world. The central aisle,
nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length, the great dome, 140 feet
in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade
encircles the piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the
right of St Peter's.]

210. REVIVAL OF LEARNING IN ITALY

THE CLASSICS IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The literature of Greece and Rome did not entirely disappear in western
Europe after the Germanic invasions. The monastery and cathedral schools
of the Middle Ages had nourished devoted students of ancient books. The
Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying the works of pagan as well
as Christian authors. The rise of universities made it possible for the
student to pursue a fairly extended course in Latin literature at more
than one institution of learning. Greek literature, however, was little
known in the West. The poems of Homer were read only in a brief Latin
summary, and even Aristotle's writings were studied in Latin translations.

DANTE ALIGHIERI 1265-1321 A.D.

Reverence for the classics finds constant expression in the writings of
the Italian poet Dante. He was a native of Florence, but passed much of
his life in exile. Dante's most famous work, the _Divine Comedy_,
describes an imaginary visit to the other world. Vergil guides him through
the realms of Hell and Purgatory until he meets his lady Beatrice, the
personification of love and purity, who conducts him through Paradise. The
_Divine Comedy_ gives in artistic verse an epitome of all that medieval
men knew and hoped and felt: it is a mirror of the Middle Ages. At the
same time it drew much of its inspiration from Graeco-Roman sources.
Athens, for Dante, is the "hearth from which all knowledge glows"; Homer
is the "loftiest of poets", and Aristotle is the "master of those who
know." This feeling for classical antiquity entitles Dante to rank as a
prophet of the Renaissance.

[Illustration: DANTE ALIGHIERI
From a fresco, somewhat restored, ascribed to the contemporary artist,
Giotto. In the National Museum, Florence.]

DANTE AND THE ITALIAN LEAGUE

Dante exerted a noteworthy influence on the Italian language. He wrote the
_Divine Comedy_, not in Latin, but in the vernacular Italian as spoken in
Florence. The popularity of this work helped to give currency to the
Florentine dialect, and in time it became the literary language of Italy.
Italian was the first of the Romance tongues to assume a national
character.

PETRARCH, 1304-1374 A.D.

Petrarch, a younger contemporary of Dante, and like him a native of
Florence, has been called the first modern scholar and man of letters. He
devoted himself with tireless energy to classical studies. Writing to a
friend, Petrarch declares that he has read Vergil, Horace, Livy, and
Cicero, "not once, but a thousand times, not cursorily but studiously and
intently, bringing to them the best powers of my mind. I tasted in the
morning and digested at night. I quaffed as a boy, to ruminate as an old
man. These works have become so familiar to me that they cling not to my
memory merely, but to the very marrow of my bones."

[Illustration: PETRARCH
From a miniature in the Laurentian Library, Florence]

PETRARCH AS A LATIN REVIVALIST

Petrarch himself composed many Latin works and did much to spread a
knowledge of Latin authors. He traveled widely in Italy, France, and other
countries, searching everywhere for ancient manuscripts. When he found in
one place two lost orations of Cicero and in another place a collection of
Cicero's letters, he was transported with delight. He kept copyists in his
house, at times as many as four, busily making transcripts of the
manuscripts that he had discovered or borrowed. Petrarch knew almost no
Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often kissed, though he could not
read it.

BOCCACCIO, 1313-1375 A.D.

Petrarch's friend and disciple, Boccaccio, was the first to bring to Italy
manuscripts of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Having learned some Greek,
he wrote out a translation of those epic poems. But Boccaccio's fame to-
day rests on the _Decameron_. It is a collection of one hundred stories
written in Italian. They are supposed to be told by a merry company of men
and women, who, during a plague at Florence, have retired to a villa in
the country. The _Decameron_ is the first important work in Italian prose.
Many English writers, notably Chaucer in his _Canterbury Tales_ [4] have
gone to it for ideas and plots. The modern short story may be said to date
from Boccaccio.

STUDY OF GREEK IN ITALY

The renewed interest in Latin literature, due to Petrarch, Boccaccio, and
others, was followed in the fifteenth century by the revival of Greek
literature. In 1396 A.D. Chrysoloras, a scholar from Constantinople, began
to lecture on Greek in the university of Florence. He afterwards taught in
other Italian cities and further aided the growth of Hellenic studies by
preparing a Greek grammar--the first book of its kind. From this time, and
especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D., many learned
Greeks came to Italy, thus transplanting in the West the culture of the
East. "Greece had not perished, but had emigrated to Italy."

HUMANISM

To the scholars of the fifteenth century the classics opened up a new
world of thought and fancy. They were delighted by the fresh, original,
and human ideas which they discovered in the pages of Homer, Plato,
Cicero, Horace, and Tacitus. Their new enthusiasm for the classics came to
be known as humanism, [5] or culture. The Greek and Latin languages and
literatures were henceforth the "humanities," as distinguished from the
old scholastic philosophy and theology.

SPREAD OF HUMANISM IN ITALY

From Florence, as from a second Athens, humanism spread throughout Italy.
At Milan and Venice, at Rome and Naples, men fell to poring over the
classics. A special feature of the age was the recovery of ancient
manuscripts from monasteries and cathedrals, where they had often lain
neglected and blackened with the dust of ages. Nearly all the Latin works
now extant were brought to light by the middle of the fifteenth century.
But it was not enough to recover the manuscripts: they had to be safely
stored and made accessible to students. So libraries were established,
professorships of the ancient languages were endowed, and scholars were
given opportunities to pursue their researches. Even the popes shared in
this zeal for humanism. One of them founded the Vatican Library at Rome,
which has the most valuable collection of manuscripts in the world. At
Florence the wealthy family of the Medici vied with the popes in the
patronage of the new learning.

211. PAPER AND PRINTING

PRINTED BOOKS

The revival of learning was greatly hastened when printed books took the
place of manuscripts laboriously copied by hand. Printing is a complicated
process, and many centuries were required to bring it to perfection. Both
paper and movable type had to be invented.

INTRODUCTION OF PAPER

The Chinese at a remote period made paper from some fibrous material. The
Arabs seem to have been the first to make linen paper out of flax and
rags. The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by the
Moors in Spain. The Arab occupation of Sicily introduced the art into
Italy. Paper found a ready sale in Europe, because papyrus and parchment,
which the ancients had used as writing materials, were both expensive and
heavy. Men now had a material moderate in price, durable, and one that
would easily receive the impression of movable type.

DEVELOPMENT OF MOVABLE TYPE

The first step in the development of printing was the use of engraved
blocks. Single letters, separate words, and sometimes entire pages of text
were cut in hard wood or copper. When inked and applied to writing
material, they left a clear impression. The second step was to cast the
letters in separate pieces of metal, all of the same height and thickness.
These could then be arranged in any desired way for printing.