EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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EXCOMMUNICATION

Disobedience to the regulations of the Church might be followed by
excommunication. It was a punishment which cut off the offender from all
Christian fellowship. He could not attend religious services nor enjoy the
sacraments so necessary to salvation. If he died excommunicate, his body
could not be buried in consecrated ground. By the law of the state he lost
all civil rights and forfeited all his property. No one might speak to
him, feed him, or shelter him. This terrible penalty, it is well to point
out, was usually imposed only after the sinner had received a fair trial
and had spurned all entreaties to repent. [12]

INTERDICT

The interdict, another form of punishment, was directed against a
particular locality, for the fault of some of the inhabitants who could
not be reached directly. In time of interdict the priests closed the
churches and neither married the living nor buried the dead. Of the
sacraments only Baptism, Confirmation, and Penance were permitted. All the
inhabitants of the afflicted district were ordered to fast, as in Lent,
and to let their hair grow long in sign of mourning. The interdict also
stopped the wheels of government, for courts of justice were shut, wills
could not be made, and public officials were forbidden to perform their
duties. In some cases the Church went so far as to lay an interdict upon
an entire kingdom, whose ruler had refused to obey her mandate. [13] The
interdict has now passed out of use, but excommunication still retains its
place among the spiritual weapons of the Church.

162. THE SECULAR CLERGY

THE SECULAR AND REGULAR CLERGY

Some one has said that in the Middle Ages there were just three classes of
society: the nobles who fought; the peasants who worked; and the clergy
who prayed. The latter class was divided into the secular [14] clergy,
including deacons, priests, and bishops, who lived active lives in the
world, and the regular [15] clergy, or monks, who passed their days in
seclusion behind monastery walls.

POSITION OF THE CLERGY

It has been already pointed out how early both secular and regular clergy
came to be distinguished from the laity by abstention from money-making
activities, differences in dress, and the obligation of celibacy. [16]
Being unmarried, the clergy had no family cares; being free from the
necessity of earning their own living, they could devote all their time
and energy to the service of the Church. The sacrament of Ordination,
which was believed to endow the clergy with divine power, also helped to
strengthen their influence. They appeared as a distinct order, in whose
charge was the care of souls and in whose hands were the keys of heaven.

PARISH PRIESTS

An account of the secular clergy naturally begins with the parish priest,
who had charge of a parish, the smallest division of Christendom. No one
could act as a priest without the approval of the bishop, but the nobleman
who supported the parish had the privilege of nominating candidates for
the position. The priest derived his income from lands belonging to the
parish, from tithes, [17] and from voluntary contributions, but as a rule
he received little more than a bare living. The parish priest was the only
Church officer who came continually into touch with the common people. He
baptized, married, and buried his parishioners. For them he celebrated
Mass at least once a week, heard confessions, and granted absolution. He
watched over all their deeds on earth and prepared them for the life to
come. And if he preached little, he seldom failed to set in his own person
an example of right living.

THE PARISH CHURCH

The church, with its spire which could be seen afar off and its bells
which called the faithful to worship, formed the social center of the
parish. Here on Sundays and holy days the people assembled for the morning
and evening services. During the interval between religious exercises they
often enjoyed games and other amusements in the adjoining churchyard. As a
place of public gathering the parish church held an important place in the
life of the Middle Ages.

BISHOPS

A group of parishes formed a diocese, over which a bishop presided. It was
his business to look after the property belonging to the diocese, to hold
the ecclesiastical courts, to visit the clergy, and to see that they did
their duty. The bishop alone could administer the sacraments of
Confirmation and Ordination. He also performed the ceremonies at the
consecration of a new church edifice or shrine. Since the Church held vast
estates on feudal tenure, the bishop was usually a territorial lord, owing
a vassal's obligations to the king or to some powerful noble for his land
and himself ruling over vassals in different parts of the country. As
symbols of his power and dignity the bishop wore on his head the miter and
carried the pastoral staff, or crosier. [18]

[Illustration: A BISHOP ORDAINING A PRIEST
From an English manuscript of the twelfth century. The bishop wears a
miter and holds in his left hand the pastoral staff, or crosier. His right
hand is extended in blessing over the priest's head.]

ARCHBISHOPS

Above the bishop in rank stood the archbishop. In England, for example,
there were two archbishops, one residing at York and the other at
Canterbury. The latter, as "primate of all England," was the highest
ecclesiastical dignitary in the land. An archbishop's distinctive vestment
consisted of the _pallium_, a narrow band of white wool, worn around the
neck. The pope alone could confer the right to wear the _pallium_.

THE CATHEDRAL

The church which contained the official seat or throne [19] of a bishop or
archbishop was called a cathedral. It was ordinarily the largest and most
magnificent church in the diocese. [20]

163. THE REGULAR CLERGY

DECLINE OF MONASTICISM

The regular clergy, or monks, during the early Middle Ages belonged to the
Benedictine order. By the tenth century, however, St. Benedict's Rule had
lost much of its force. As the monasteries increased in wealth through
gifts of land and goods, they sometimes became centers of idleness,
luxury, and corruption. The monks forgot their vows of poverty; and,
instead of themselves laboring as farmers, craftsmen, and students, they
employed laymen to work for them. At the same time powerful feudal lords
frequently obtained control of the monastic estates by appointing as
abbots their children or their retainers. Grave danger existed that the
monasteries would pass out of Church control and decline into mere fiefs
ruled by worldly men.

THE CLUNIAC REVIVAL

A great revival of monasticism began in 910 A.D., with the foundation of
the monastery of Cluny in eastern France. The monks of Cluny led lives of
the utmost self-denial and followed the Benedictine Rule in all its
strictness. Their enthusiasm and devotion were contagious; before long
Cluny became a center from which a reformatory movement spread over France
and then over all western Europe. By the middle of the twelfth century
more than three hundred monasteries looked to Cluny for inspiration and
guidance.

THE "CONGREGATION OF CLUNY"

Each of the earlier Benedictine monasteries had been an isolated
community, independent and self-governing. Consequently, when discipline
grew lax or when the abbot proved to be an incapable ruler, it was
difficult to correct the evils which arose. In the Cluniac system,
however, all the monasteries formed parts of one organization, the
"Congregation of Cluny." The abbot of Cluny appointed their "priors," or
heads, and required every monk to pass several years of his monastic life
at Cluny itself. This monarchical arrangement helps to explain why for two
hundred years the abbot of Cluny was, next to the pope, the most important
churchman in western Europe.

THE CISTERCIAN ORDER

Other monastic orders arose in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Of
these, the most important was the Cistercian, founded in 1098 A.D. at
Citeaux, not far from Cluny. The keynote of Cistercian life was the return
to a literal obedience of St. Benedict's Rule. Hence the members of the
order lived in the utmost simplicity, cooking their own meager repasts and
wearing coarse woolen garments woven from the fleeces of their own sheep.
The Cistercians especially emphasized the need for manual labor. They were
the best farmers and cattle breeders of the Middle Ages. Western Europe
owes even more to them than to the Benedictines for their work as pioneers
in the wilderness. "The Cistercians," declared a medieval writer, "are a
model to all monks, a mirror for the diligent, a spur to the indolent."

ST. BERNARD, 1090-1153 A.D.

The whole spirit of medieval monasticism found expression in St. Bernard,
a Burgundian of noble birth. While still a young man he resolved to leave
the world and seek the repose of the monastic life. He entered Citeaux,
carrying with him thirty companions. Mothers are said to have hid their
sons from him, and wives their husbands, lest they should be converted to
monasticism by his persuasive words. After a few years at Citeaux St.
Bernard established the monastery of Clairvaux, over which he ruled as
abbot till his death. His ascetic life, piety, eloquence, and ability as
an executive soon brought him into prominence. People visited Clairvaux
from far and near to listen to his preaching and to receive his counsels.
The monastery flourished under his direction and became the parent of no
less than sixty-five Cistercian houses which were planted in the
wilderness. St. Bernard's activities widened, till he came to be the most
influential man in western Christendom. It was St. Bernard who acted as an
adviser of the popes, at one time deciding between two rival candidates
for the Papacy, who combated most vigorously the heresies of the day, and
who by his fiery appeals set in motion one of the crusades. [21] The charm
of his character is revealed to us in his sermons and letters, while some
of the Latin hymns commonly attributed to him are still sung in many
churches, both Roman Catholic and Protestant.

164. THE FRIARS

COMING OF THE FRIARS

The history of Christian monasticism exhibits an ever-widening social
outlook. The early hermits [22] had devoted themselves, as they believed,
to the service of God by retiring desert for prayer, meditation, and
bodily mortification. St. Benedict's wise Rule, as followed by the
medieval monastic orders, marked a change for the better. It did away with
extreme forms of self-denial, brought the monks together in a common
house, and required them to engage in daily manual labor. Yet even the
Benedictine system had its limitations. The monks lived apart from the
world and sought chiefly the salvation of their own souls. A new
conception of the monastic life arose early in the thirteenth century,
with the coming of the friars. [23] The aim of the friars was social
service. They lived active lives in the world and devoted themselves
entirely to the salvation of others. The foundation of the orders of
friars was the work of two men, St. Francis in Italy and St. Dominic in
Spain.

ST. FRANCIS, 1181(?)-1226 A.D.

Twenty-eight years after the death of St. Bernard, St. Francis was born at
Assisi. As the son of a rich and prominent merchant St. Francis had before
him the prospect of a fine career in the world. But he put away all
thoughts of fame and wealth, deserted his gay companions, and, choosing
"Lady Poverty" as his bride, started out to minister to lepers and social
outcasts. One day, while attending Mass, the call came to him to preach
the Gospel, as Christ had preached it, among the poor and lowly. The man's
earnestness and charm of manner soon drew about him devoted followers.
After some years St. Francis went to Rome and obtained Pope Innocent III's
sanction of his work. The Franciscan order spread so rapidly that even in
the founder's lifetime there were several thousand members in Italy and
other European countries.

[Illustration: ST. FRANCIS BLESSING THE BIRDS
From a painting by the Italian artist Giotto.]

ST. FRANCIS, THE MAN

St. Francis is one of the most attractive figures in all history. Perhaps
no other man has ever tried so seriously to imitate in his own life the
life of Christ. St. Francis went about doing good. He resembled, in some
respects, the social workers and revivalist preachers of to-day. In other
respects he was a true child of the Middle Ages. An ascetic, he fasted,
wore a hair-cloth shirt, mixed ashes with his food to make it
disagreeable, wept daily, so that his eyesight was nearly destroyed, and
every night flogged himself with iron chains. A mystic, he lived so close
to God and nature that he could include within the bonds of his love not
only men and women, but also animals, trees, and flowers. He preached a
sermon to the birds and once wrote a hymn to praise God for his
"brothers," sun, wind, and fire, and for his "sisters," moon, water, and
earth. When told that he had but a short time to live, he exclaimed,
"Welcome, Sister Death!" He died at the age of forty-five, worn out by his
exertions and self-denial. Two years later the pope made him a saint.

ST. DOMINIC, 1170-1221 A.D.

St. Dominic, unlike St. Francis, was a clergyman and a student of
theology. After being ordained he went to southern France and labored
there for ten years among a heretical sect known as the Albigenses. The
order of Dominicans grew out of the little band of volunteers who assisted
him in the mission. St. Dominic sent his followers--at first only sixteen
in number--out into the world to combat heresy. They met with great
success, and at the founder's death the Dominicans had as many as sixty
friaries in various European cities.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRIARS

The Franciscans and Dominicans resembled each other in many ways. They
were "itinerant," going on foot from place to place, and wearing coarse
robes tied round the waist with a rope. They were "mendicants," [24] who
possessed no property but lived on the alms of the charitable. They were
also preachers, who spoke to the people, not in Latin, but in the common
language of each country which they visited. The Franciscans worked
especially in the "slums" of the cities; the Dominicans addressed
themselves rather to educated people and the upper classes. As time went
on, both orders relaxed the rule of poverty and became very wealthy. They
still survive, scattered all over the world and employed in teaching and
missionary activity. [25]

THE FRIARS AND THE PAPACY

The friars by their preaching and ministrations did a great deal to call
forth a religious revival in Europe during the thirteenth century. In
particular they helped to strengthen the papal authority. Both orders
received the sanction of the pope; both enjoyed many privileges at his
hands; and both looked to him for direction. The pope employed them to
raise money, to preach crusades, and to impose excommunications and
interdicts. The Franciscans and Dominicans formed, in fact, the agents of
the Papacy.

165. POWER OF THE PAPACY

THE POPE'S EXALTED POSITION

The name "pope" [26] seems at first to have been applied to all priests as
a title of respect and affection. The Greek Church still continues this
use of the word. In the West it gradually came to be reserved to the
bishop of Rome as his official title. The pope was addressed in speaking
as "Your Holiness." His exalted position was further indicated by the
tiara, or headdress with triple crowns, worn by him in processions. [27]
He went to solemn ceremonies sitting in a chair supported on the shoulders
of his guard. He gave audience from an elevated throne, and all who
approached him kissed his feet in reverence. As "Christ's Vicar" he
claimed to be the representative on earth of the Almighty.

THE POPE AS THE HEAD OF WESTERN CHRISTENDOM

The pope was the supreme lawgiver of the Church. His decrees might not be
set aside by any other person. He made new laws in the form of "bulls"
[28] and by his "dispensations" could in particular cases set aside old
laws, such as those forbidding cousins to marry or monks to obtain release
from their vows. The pope was also the supreme judge of the Church, for
all appeals from the lower ecclesiastical courts came before him for
decision. Finally, the pope was the supreme administrator of the Church.
He confirmed the election of bishops, deposed them, when necessary, or
transferred them from one diocese to another. No archbishop might perform
the functions of his office until he had received the _pallium_ from the
pope's hands. The pope also exercised control over the monastic orders and
called general councils of the Church.

THE PAPAL LEGATES

The authority of the pope was commonly exercised by the "legates," [29]
whom he sent out as his representatives at the various European courts.
These officers kept the pope in close touch with the condition of the
Church in every part of western Europe. A similar function is performed in
modern times by the papal ambassadors known as "nuncios."

THE CARDINALS

For assistance in government the pope made use of the cardinals, [30] who
formed a board, or "college." At first they were chosen only from the
clergy of Rome and the vicinity, but in course of time the pope opened the
cardinalate to prominent churchmen in all countries. The number of
cardinals is now fixed at seventy, but the college is never full, and
there are always ten or more "vacant hats," as the saying goes. The
cardinals, in the eleventh century, received the right of choosing a new
pope. A cardinal ranks above all other church officers. His dignity is
indicated by the red hat and scarlet robe which he wears and by the title
of "Eminence" applied to him.

INCOME OF THE PAPACY

To support the business of the Papacy and to maintain the splendor of the
papal court required a large annual income. This came partly from the
States of the Church in Italy, partly from the gifts of the faithful, and
partly from the payments made by abbots, bishops, and archbishops when the
pope confirmed their election to office. Still another source of revenue
consisted of "Peter's Pence," a tax of a penny on each hearth. It was
collected every year in England and in some Continental countries until
the Reformation. The modern "Peter's Pence" is a voluntary contribution
made by Roman Catholics in all countries.

THE CAPITAL OF THE PAPACY

The Eternal City, from which in ancient times the known world had been
ruled, formed in the Middle Ages the capital of the Papacy. Hither every
year came tens of thousands of pilgrims to worship at the shrine of the
Prince of the Apostles. Few traces now remain of the medieval city. Old
St. Peter's Church, where Charlemagne was crowned emperor, [31] gave way
in the sixteenth century to the world-famous structure that now occupies
its site. [32] The Lateran Palace, which for more than a thousand years
served as the residence of the popes, has also disappeared, its place
being taken by a new and smaller building. The popes now live in the
splendid palace of the Vatican, adjoining St. Peter's.

THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE

The powers exercised by the popes during the later Middle Ages were not
secured without a struggle. As a matter of fact the concentration of
authority in papal hands was a gradual development covering several
hundred years. The pope reached his exalted position only after a long
contest with the Holy Roman Emperor. This contest forms one of the most
noteworthy episodes in medieval history.

166. POPES AND EMPERORS, 962-1122 A.D.

RELATIONS BETWEEN POPE AND EMPEROR IN THEORY

One might suppose that there could be no interference between pope and
emperor, since they seemed to have separate spheres of action. It was said
that God had made the pope, as the successor of St. Peter, supreme in
spiritual matters and the emperor, as heir of the Roman Caesars, supreme
in temporal matters. The former ruled men's souls, the latter, men's
bodies. The two sovereigns thus divided on equal terms the government of
the world.

THEIR RELATIONS IN PRACTICE

The difficulty with this theory was that it did not work. No one could
decide in advance where the authority the pope ended and where that of the
emperor began. When the pope claimed certain powers which were also
claimed by the emperor, a conflict between the two rulers became
inevitable.

[Illustration: THE SPIRITUAL AND TEMPORAL POWER
A tenth-century mosaic in the church of St. John, Rome. It represents
Christ giving to St. Peter the keys of heaven, and to Constantine the
banner symbolic of earthly dominion.]

OTTO THE GREAT AND THE PAPACY

In 962 A.D. Otto the Great, as we have learned, [33] restored imperial
rule in the West, thus founding what in later centuries the came to be
known as the Holy Roman Empire. Otto as emperor possessed the rights of
making the city of Rome the imperial capital, of approving the election of
the pope, and, in general, of exerting much influence in papal affairs.
All these rights had been exercised by Charlemagne. But Otto did what
Charlemagne had never done when he deposed a pope who proved disobedient
to his wishes and on his own authority appointed a successor. At the same
time Otto exacted from the people of Rome an oath that they would never
recognize any pope to whose election the emperor had not consented.

THE PAPACY AND OTTO'S SUCCESSORS

The emperors who followed Otto repeatedly interfered in elections to the
Papacy. One strong ruler, Henry III (1039-1056 A.D.), has been called the
"pope-maker." Early in his reign he set aside three rival claimants to the
Papacy, creating a German bishop pope, and on three subsequent occasions
filled the papal throne by fresh appointments. It was clear that if this
situation continued much longer the Papacy would become simply an imperial
office; it would be merged in the Empire.

PAPAL ELECTION BY THE CARDINALS

The death of Henry III, which left the Empire in weak hands, gave the
Papacy a chance to escape the control of the secular power. In 1059 A.D. a
church council held at the Lateran Palace decreed that henceforth the
right of choosing the supreme pontiff should belong exclusively to the
cardinals, who represented the clergy of Rome. This arrangement has tended
to prevent any interference with the election of popes, either by the
Roman people or by foreign sovereigns.

FEUDALIZING OF THE CHURCH

Now that the Papacy had become independent, it began to deal with a grave
problem which affected the Church at large. According to ecclesiastical
rule bishops ought to be chosen by the clergy of their diocese and abbots
of by their monks. With the growth of feudalism, however, many of these
high dignitaries had become vassals, holding their lands as fiefs of
princes, kings, and emperors, and owing the usual feudal dues. Their lords
expected them to perform the ceremony of homage, [34] before "investing"
them with the lands attached to the bishopric or monastery. One can
readily see that in practice the lords really chose the bishops and
abbots, since they could always refuse to "invest" those who were
displeasing to them.

LAY INVESTITURE FROM THE CHURCH STANDPOINT

To the reformers in the Church lay investiture appeared intolerable. How
could the Church keep itself unspotted from the world when its highest
officers were chosen by laymen and were compelled to perform unpriestly
duties? In the act of investiture the reformers also saw the sin of simony
[35]--the sale of sacred powers--because there was such a temptation
before the candidate for a bishopric or abbacy to buy the position with
promises or with money.

LAY INVESTITURE AS VIEWED BY THE SECULAR AUTHORITY

The lords, on the other hand, believed that as long as bishops and abbots
held vast estates on feudal tenure they should continue to perform the
obligations of vassalage. To forbid lay investiture was to deprive the
lords of all control over Church dignitaries. The real difficulty of the
situation existed, of course, in the fact that the bishops and abbots were
both spiritual officers and temporal rulers, were servants of both the
Church and the State. They found it very difficult to serve two masters.

PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII, 1073-1085 A.D.

In 1073 A.D. there came to the throne of St. Peter one of the most
remarkable of the popes. This was Hildebrand, who, on becoming pope, took
the name of Gregory VII. Of obscure Italian birth, he received his
education in a Benedictine monastery at Rome and rose rapidly to a
position of great influence in papal affairs. He is described as a small
man, ungainly in appearance and with a weak voice, but energetic,
forceful, and of imperious will.

GREGORY'S AIMS

Gregory devoted all his talents to the advancement of the Papacy. A
contemporary document, [36] which may have been of Gregory's own
composition and at any rate expresses his ideas, contains the following
statements: "The Roman pontiff alone is properly called universal. He
alone may depose bishops and restore them to office. He is the only person
whose feet are kissed by all princes. He may depose emperors. He may be
judged by no one. He may absolve from their allegiance the subjects of the
wicked. The Roman Church never has erred, and never can err, as the
Scriptures testify." Gregory did not originate these doctrines, but he was
the first pope who ventured to make a practical application of them.