EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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COMMON CULTIVATION OF THE ARABLE LAND

Of the arable land of the manor the lord reserved as much as needful for
his own use. The lord's land was called his "demesne," or domain. The rest
of the land he allotted to the peasants who were his tenants, They
cultivated their holdings in common. A farmer, instead of having his land
in one compact mass, had it split up into a large number of small strips
(usually about half an acre each) scattered over the manor, and separated,
not by fences or hedges, but by banks of unplowed turf. The appearance of
a manor, when under cultivation, has been likened to a vast checkerboard
or a patchwork quilt. [18] The reason for the intermixture of strips seems
to have been to make sure that each farmer had a portion both of the good
land and of the bad. It is obvious that this arrangement compelled all the
peasants to labor according to a common plan. A man had to sow the same
kinds of crops as his neighbors, and to till and reap them at the same
time. Agriculture, under such circumstances, could not fail to be
unprogressive.

[Illustration: FARM WORK IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Plowing, Harrowing, Cutting Weeds, Reaping.]

FARMING METHODS

In other ways, too, agriculture was very backward. Farmers did not know
how to enrich the soil by the use of fertilizers or how to provide for a
proper rotation of crops. Hence each year they cultivated only two-thirds
of the land, letting the other third lie "fallow" (uncultivated), that it
might recover its fertility. It is said that eight or nine bushels of
grain represented the average yield of an acre. Farm animals were small,
for scientific breeding had not yet begun. A full-grown ox reached a size
scarcely larger than a calf of to-day, and the fleece of a sheep often
weighed less than two ounces. Farm implements were few and clumsy. The
wooden ploughs only scratched the ground. Harrowing was done with a hand
implement little better than a large rake. Grain was cut with a sickle,
and grass was mown with a scythe. It took five men a day to reap and bind
the harvest of two acres.

COMMON USE OF THE NON-ARABLE LAND

Besides his holding of farm land, which in England averaged about thirty
acres, each peasant had certain rights over the non-arable land of the
manor. He could cut a limited amount of hay from the meadow. He could turn
so many farm animals--cattle, geese, swine--on the waste. He also enjoyed
the privilege of taking so much wood from the forest for fuel and building
purposes. A peasant's holding, which also included a house in the village,
thus formed a complete outfit.

156. THE VILLAGE AND LIFE OF THE PEASANTS

A VILLAGE DESCRIBED

The peasants on a manor lived close together in one or more villages.
Their small, thatch-roofed, and one-roomed houses would be grouped about
an open space (the "green"), or on both sides of a single, narrow street.
The only important buildings were the parish church, the parsonage, a
mill, if a stream ran through the manor, and possibly a blacksmith's shop.
The population of one of these villages often did not exceed one hundred
souls.

A VILLAGE AS SELF-SUFFICING

Perhaps the most striking feature of a medieval village was its self-
sufficiency. The inhabitants tried to produce at home everything they
required, in order to avoid the uncertainty and expense of trade. The land
gave them their food; the forest provided them with wood for houses and
furniture. They made their own clothes of flax, wool, and leather. Their
meal and flour were ground at the village mill, and at the village smithy
their farm implements were manufactured. The chief articles which needed
to be brought from some distant market were salt, used to salt down farm
animals killed in autumn, iron for various tools, and millstones. Cattle,
horses, and surplus grain also formed common objects of exchange between
manors.

HARD LOT OF THE PEASANTRY

Life in a medieval village was rude and rough. The peasants labored from
sunrise to sunset, ate coarse fare, lived in huts, and suffered from
frequent pestilences. They were often the helpless prey of the feudal
nobles. If their lord happened to be a quarrelsome man, given to fighting
with his neighbors, they might see their lands ravaged, their cattle
driven off, their village burned, and might themselves be slain. Even
under peaceful conditions the narrow, shut-in life of the manor could not
be otherwise than degrading.

ALLEVIATIONS OF THE PEASANT'S LOT

Yet there is another side to the picture. If the peasants had a just and
generous lord, they probably led a fairly comfortable existence. Except
when crops failed, they had an abundance of food, and possibly wine or
cider drink. They shared a common life in the work of the fields, in the
sports of the village green, and in the services of the parish church.
They enjoyed many holidays; it has been estimated that, besides Sundays,
about eight weeks in every year were free from work. Festivities at
Christmas, Easter, and May Day, at the end of ploughing and the completion
of harvest, relieved the monotony of the daily round of labor. [19]
Perhaps these medieval peasants were not much worse off than the
agricultural laborers in most countries of modern Europe.

[Illustration: PLAN OF HITCHIN MANOR, HERTFORDSHIRE
Lord's demesne, diagonal lines. Meadow and pasture lands, dotted areas.
Normal holding of a peasant, black strips.]

157. SERFDOM

FREEMEN, SLAVES, AND SERFS

A medieval village usually contained several classes of laborers. There
might be a number of freemen, who paid a fixed rent, either in money or
produce, for the use of their land. Then there might also be a few slaves
in the lord's household or at work on his domain. By this time, however,
slavery had about died out in western Europe. Most of the peasants were
serfs.

NATURE OF SERFDOM

Serfdom represented a stage between slavery and freedom. A slave belonged
to his master; he was bought and sold like other chattels. A serf had a
higher position, for he could not be sold apart from the land nor could
his holding be taken from him. He was fixed to the soil. On the other hand
a serf ranked lower than a freeman, because he could not change his abode,
nor marry outside the manor, nor bequeath his goods, without the
permission of his lord.

OBLIGATIONS OF THE SERF

The serf did not receive his land as a free gift; for the use of it he
owed certain duties to his master. These took chiefly the form of personal
services. He must labor on the lord's domain for two or three days each
week, and at specially busy seasons, such as ploughing and harvesting, he
must do extra work. At least half his time was usually demanded by the
lord. The serf had also to make certain payments, either in money or more
often in grain, honey, eggs, or other produce. When he ground the wheat or
pressed the grapes which grew on his land, he must use the lord's mill,
the lord's wine-press, and pay the customary charge. In theory the lord
could tax his serfs as heavily and make them work as hard as he pleased,
but the fear of losing his tenants doubtless in most cases prevented him
from imposing too great burdens on them.

ORIGIN OF SERFDOM

Serfdom developed during the later centuries of the Roman Empire and in
the early Middle Ages. It was well established by the time of Charlemagne.
Most serfs seem to have been the descendants, or at least the successors,
of Roman slaves, whose condition had gradually improved. The serf class
was also recruited from the ranks of freemen, who by conquest or because
of the desire to gain the protection of a lord, became subject to him.
Serfdom, however, was destined to be merely a transitory condition. By the
close of medieval times, the serfs in most parts of western Europe had
secured their freedom. [20]

158. DECLINE OF FEUDALISM

DURATION OF FEUDALISM

Feudalism had a vigorous life for about five hundred years. Taking
definite form early in the ninth century, it flourished throughout the
later Middle Ages, but became decadent by the opening of the fourteenth
century.

FORCES OPPOSED TO FEUDALISM: THE KINGS

As a system of local government, feudalism tended to pass away when the
rulers in England, France, and Spain, and later in Germany and Italy,
became powerful enough to put down private warfare, execute justice, and
maintain order everywhere in their dominions. The kings were always anti-
feudal. We shall study in a later chapter (Chapter XXII) the rise of
strong governments and centralized states in western Europe.

FORCES OPPOSED TO FEUDALISM: THE CITIES

As a system of local industry, feudalism could not survive the great
changes of the later Middle Ages, when reviving trade, commerce, and
manufactures had begun to lead to the increase of wealth, the growth of
markets, and the substitution of money payments for those in produce or
services. Flourishing cities arose, as in the days of the Roman Empire,
freed themselves from the control of the nobles, and became the homes of
liberty and democracy. The cities, like the kings, were always anti-
feudal. We shall deal with their development in a subsequent chapter
(Chapter XXIII).

THE CHURCH AND FEUDALISM

There was still another anti-feudal force, namely, the Roman Church. It is
true that many of the higher clergy were feudal lords, and that even the
monasteries owned vast estates which were parceled out among tenants.
Nevertheless, the Roman Church as a universal organization, including men
of all ranks and classes, was necessarily opposed to feudalism, a local
and an aristocratic system. The work and influence of this Church will now
engage our attention.

STUDIES

1. Write a brief essay on feudal society, using the following words: lord;
vassal; castle; keep; dungeon; chivalry; tournament; manor; and serf.

2. Explain the following terms: vassal; fief; serf; "aid"; homage; squire;
investiture; and "relief."

3. Look up the origin of the words homage, castle, dungeon, and chivalry.

4. "The real heirs of Charlemagne were from the first neither the kings of
France nor those of Italy or Germany; but the feudal lords." Comment on
this statement.

5. Why was the feudal system not found in the Roman Empire in the East
during the Middle Ages?

6. Why has feudalism been called "confusion roughly organized"?

7. Contrast feudalism as a political system with (a) the classical city-
states, (b) the Roman Empire, and (c) modern national states.

8. What was the effect of feudalism on the sentiment of patriotism?

9. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of primogeniture as
the rule of inheritance?

10. Explain these phrases: "to be in hot water;" "to go through fire and
water;" and "to haul over the coals."

11. Compare the oaths administered to witnesses in modern courts with
medieval oaths.

12. Why was war the usual condition of feudal society?

13. Compare the "Peace of God" with the earlier "Roman Peace" (_Pax
Romana_).

14. Mention some modern comforts and luxuries which were unknown in feudal
castles.

15. What is the present meaning of the word "chivalrous"? How did it get
that meaning?

16. Why has chivalry been called "the blossom of feudalism"?

17. Contrast the ideal of a chivalry with that of monasticism.

18. Show that the serf was not a slave or a "hired man" or a tenant-farmer
paying rent.

FOOTNOTES

[1] See page 312.

[2] The word has nothing to do with "feuds," though these were common
enough in feudal times. It comes from the medieval Latin _feudum_, from
which are desired the French _fief_ and the English _fee_.

[3] See pages 472, 478.

[4] The practice of primogeniture has now been abolished by the laws of
the various European countries and is not recognized in the United States.
It still prevails, however, in England.

[5] Latin _homo_, "man."

[6] Sir Walter Scott's novel, _Ivanhoe_ (chapter xliii), contains an
account of a judicial duel.

[7] See page 326.

[8] See page 331.

[9] See the illustrations, pages 408, 421, 422, 473.

[10] The French form of the word is _chateau_.

[11] A good example is the "White Tower," which forms a part of the Tower
of London. It was built by William the Conqueror. See the illustration,
page 498.

[12] See page 560.

[13] Malory, _Morte d'Arthur_, xxi, 13. See also Tennyson's poem, _Sir
Galahad_, for a beautiful presentation of the ideal knight.

[14] Sir Walter Scott's novel, _Ivanhoe_ (chapter xii), contains a
description of a tournament.

[15] _Don Quixote_, by the Spanish writer, Cervantes (1547-1616 A.D.), is
a famous satire on chivalry. Our American "Mark Twain" also stripped off
the gilt and tinsel of chivalry in his amusing story entitled _A
Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur_.

[16] See page 208.

[17] According to Domesday Book (see page 499) there were 9250 manors, of
which William the Conqueror possessed 1422. His manors lay in about thirty
counties.

[18] This "open field" system of agriculture, as it is usually called,
still survives in some parts of Europe. See the plan of Hitchin Manor,
page 435.

[19] See page 581-582.

[20] See page 612.

CHAPTER XIX

THE PAPACY AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 962-1273 A.D. [1]

159. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH

THE ROMAN CHURCH

A preceding chapter dealt with the Christian Church in the East and West
during the early Middle Ages. We learned something about its organization,
belief, and worship, about the rise and growth of the Papacy, about
monasticism, and about that missionary campaign which won all Europe to
Christianity. Our narrative extended to the middle of the eleventh
century, when the quarrel between pope and patriarch led at length to the
disruption of Christendom. We have now to consider the work and influence
of the Roman Church during later centuries of the Middle Ages.

TERRITORIAL EXTENT OF THE CHURCH

The Church at the height of its power held spiritual sway over all western
Europe. Italy and Sicily, the larger part of Spain, France, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, British Isles, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland
yielded obedience to the pope of Rome.

THE CHURCH AS UNIVERSAL

Membership in the Church was not a matter of free choice. All people,
except Jews, were required to belong to it. A person joined the Church by
baptism, a rite usually performed in infancy, and remained in it as long
as he lived. Every one was expected to conform, at least outwardly, to the
doctrines and practices of the Church, and anyone attacking its authority
was liable to punishment by the state.

THE CHURCH AS INTERNATIONAL

The presence of one Church throughout the western world furnished a bond
of union between European peoples during the age of feudalism. The Church
took no heed of political boundaries, for men of all nationalities entered
the ranks of the priesthood and joined the monastic orders. Priests and
monks were subjects of no country, but were "citizens of heaven," as they
sometimes called themselves. Even difference of language counted for
little in the Church, since Latin was the universal speech of the educated
classes. One must think, then, of the Church as a great international
state, in form a monarchy, presided over by the pope, and with its capital
at Rome.

TWOFOLD DUTIES OF THE CHURCH

The Church in the Middle Ages performed a double task. On the one hand it
gave the people religious instruction and watched over their morals; on
the other hand it played an important part in European politics and
provided a means of government. Because the Church thus combined
ecclesiastical and civil functions, it was quite unlike all modern
churches, whether Greek, Roman, or Protestant. Both sides of its
activities deserve, therefore, to be considered.

160. CHURCH DOCTRINE AND WORSHIP

"THE GATE OF HEAVEN."

In medieval times every loyal member of the Church accepted without
question its authority in religious matters. The Church taught a belief in
a personal God, all-wise, all-good, all-powerful, to know whom was the
highest goal of life. The avenue to this knowledge lay through faith in
the revelation of God, as found in the Scriptures. Since the unaided human
reason could not properly interpret the Scriptures, it was necessary for
the Church, through her officers, to declare their meaning and set forth
what doctrines were essential to salvation. The Church thus appeared as
the sole repository of religious knowledge, as "the gate of heaven."

THE SACRAMENTAL SYSTEM

Salvation did not depend only on the acceptance of certain beliefs. There
were also certain acts, called "sacraments," in which the faithful
Christian must participate, if he was not to be cut off eternally from
God. These acts formed channels of heavenly grace; they saved man from the
consequences of his sinful nature and filled him with "the fullness of
divine life." Since priests alone could administer the sacraments, [2] the
Church presented itself as the necessary mediator between God and man.

BAPTISM, CONFIRMATION, MATRIMONY, AND EXTREME UNCTION

By the thirteenth century seven sacraments were generally recognized. Four
of these marked critical stages in human life, from the cradle to the
grave. Baptism cleansed the child from the taint of original sin and
admitted him into the Christian community. Confirmation gave him full
Church fellowship. Matrimony united husband and wife in holy bonds which
might never be broken. Extreme Unction, the anointing with oil of one
mortally ill, purified the soul and endowed it with strength to meet
death.

PENANCE

Penance held an especially important place in the sacramental system. At
least once a year the Christian must confess his sins to a priest. If he
seemed to be truly repentant, the priest pronounced the solemn words of
absolution and then required him to accept some punishment, which varied
according to the nature of the offense. There was a regular code of
penalties for such sins as drunkenness, avarice, perjury, murder, and
heresy. Penances often consisted in fasting, reciting prayers, abstaining
from one's ordinary amusements, or beating oneself with bundles of rods. A
man who had sinned grievously might be ordered to engage in charitable
work, to make a contribution in money for the support of the Church, or to
go on a pilgrimage to a sacred shrine. The more distant and difficult a
pilgrimage, the more meritorious it was, especially if it led to some very
holy place, such as Rome or Jerusalem. People might also become monks in
order to atone for evil-doing. This system of penitential punishment
referred only to the earthly life; it was not supposed to cleanse the soul
for eternity.

HOLY EUCHARIST

The sacrament of the Holy Eucharist, generally known as the Mass, formed
the central feature of worship. It was more than a common meal in
commemoration of the Last Supper of Christ with the Apostles. It was a
solemn ceremony, by which the Christian believed himself to receive the
body and blood of Christ, under the form of bread and wine. [3] The right
of the priest to withhold the Eucharist from any person, for good cause,
gave the Church great power, because the failure to partake of this
sacrament imperiled one's chances of future salvation. It was also
supposed that the benefits of the ceremony in purifying from sin might be
enjoyed by the dead in Purgatory; hence masses were often said for the
repose of their souls.

ORDINATION

The seventh and last sacrament, that of Ordination, or "Holy Orders,"
admitted persons to the priesthood. According to the view of the Church
the rite had been instituted by Christ, when He chose the Apostles and
sent them forth to preach the Gospel. From the Apostles, who ordained
their successors, the clergy in all later times received their exalted
authority. [4] Ordination conferred spiritual power and set such an
indelible mark on the character that one who had been ordained could never
become a simple layman again.

[Illustration: PILGRIMS TO CANTERBURY
From a medieval manuscript. Canterbury with its cathedral appears in the
background. The shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, formed
a celebrated resort for medieval pilgrims. The archbishop had been
murdered in the church (1180 A.D.), if not at the instigation, at any rate
without the opposition of King Henry II, whose policies he opposed.
Becket, who was regarded as a martyr, soon received canonization. Miracles
were said to be worked at his grave and at the well in which his bloody
garments had been washed. He remained the most popular saint in England
until the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, when his shrine
was destroyed.]

REVERENCE FOR SAINTS

The Church did not rely solely on the sacramental system as a means to
salvation. It was believed that holy persons, called saints, [5] who had
died and gone to Heaven, offered to God their prayers for men. Hence the
practice arose of invoking the aid of the saints in all the concerns of
life. The earliest saints were Christian martyrs, [6] who had sealed their
faith with their blood. In course of time many other persons, renowned for
pious deeds, were exalted to sainthood. The making of a new saint, after a
rigid inquiry into the merits of the person whom it is proposed to honor,
is now a privilege reserved to the pope.

DEVOTION TO THE VIRGIN

High above all the saints stood the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God.
Devotion to her as the "Queen of Heaven" increased rapidly in the Church
after the time of Gregory the Great. The popularity of her cult owed not a
little to the influence of chivalry, [7] for the knight, who vowed to
cherish womanhood, saw in the Virgin the ideal woman. Everywhere churches
arose in her honor, and no cathedral or abbey lacked a chapel dedicated to
Our Lady.

RELICS

The growing reverence for saints led to an increased interest in relics.
These included the bones of a saint and shreds of his garments, besides
such objects as the wood or nails of the cross on which Christ suffered.
Relics were not simply mementos; they were supposed to possess miraculous
power which passed into them through contact with holy persons. This
belief explains the use of relics to heal diseases, to ward off danger,
and, in general, to bring good fortune. An oath taken upon relics was
especially sacred. [8] Every church building contained a collection of
relics, sometimes amounting to thousands in number, and even private
persons often owned them.

PURGATORY

The Church also taught a belief in Purgatory as a state or place of
probation. [9] Here dwelt the souls of those who were guilty of no mortal
sins which would condemn them to Hell, but yet were burdened with
imperfections which prevented them from entering Heaven. Such
imperfections, it was held, might be removed by the prayers of the living,
and hence the practice arose of praying for the dead.

161. CHURCH JURISDICTION

CHURCH COURTS

The Church had regular courts and a special system of law [10] for the
trial of offenders against its regulations. Many cases, which to-day would
be decided according to the civil or criminal law of the state, in the
Middle Ages came before the ecclesiastical courts. Since marriage was
considered a sacrament, the Church took upon itself to decide what
marriages were lawful. It forbade the union of first cousins, of second
cousins, and of godparents and godchildren. It refused to sanction
divorce, for whatever cause, if both parties at the time of marriage had
been baptized Christians. The Church dealt with inheritance under wills,
for a man could not make a legal will until he had confessed, and
confession formed part of the sacrament of Penance. All contracts made
binding by oaths came under Church jurisdiction, because an oath was an
appeal to God. [11] The Church tried those who were charged with any sin
against religion, including heresy, blasphemy, the taking of interest
(usury), and the practice of witchcraft. Widows, orphans, and the families
of pilgrims or crusaders also enjoyed the special protection of Church
courts.

"BENEFIT OF CLERGY"

The Church claimed the privilege of judging all cases which involved
clergymen. No layman, it was declared, ought to interfere with one who, by
the sacrament of Ordination, had been dedicated to God. This demand of the
Church to try its own officers, according to its own mild and intelligent
laws, seems not unreasonable, when we remember how rude were the methods
of feudal justice. But "benefit of clergy," as the privilege was called,
might be abused. Many persons who had no intention of acting as priests or
monks became clergymen, in order to shield themselves behind the Church in
case their misdeeds were exposed.

RIGHT OF "SANCTUARY."

An interesting illustration of the power of the Church is afforded by the
right of "sanctuary." Any lawbreaker who fled to a church building
enjoyed, for a limited time, the privilege of safe refuge. It was
considered a sin against God to drag even the most wicked criminal from
the altar. The most that could be done was to deny the refugee food, so
that he might come forth voluntarily. This privilege of seeking sanctuary
was not without social usefulness, for it gave time for angry passions to
cool, thus permitting an investigation of the charges against an offender.