EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN

When the Germans along the Rhine and the Danube crossed the frontiers and
entered the western provinces, they had already been partially Romanized.
They understood enough of Roman civilization to appreciate it and to
desire to preserve it. The situation was quite different with the Anglo-
Saxons. Their original home lay in a part of Germany far beyond the
borders of the Roman Empire and remote from the cultural influences of
Rome. Coming to Britain as barbarians, they naturally introduced their own
language, laws, and customs wherever they settled. Much of what the Anglo-
Saxons brought with them still lives in England, and from that country has
spread to the United States and the vast English colonies beyond the seas.
The English language is less indebted to Latin than any of the Romance
languages, [25] and the Common law of England owes much less to Roman law
than do the legal systems of Continental Europe. England, indeed, looks to
the Anglo-Saxons for some of the most characteristic and important
elements of her civilization.

[Illustration: Map, ANGLO-SAXON BRITAIN]

112. CHRISTIANITY IN THE BRITISH ISLES

PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY

The Anglo-Saxons also brought to Britain their heathen faith. Christianity
did not come to them until the close the sixth century. At this time more
or less intercourse had sprung up between the people of Kent, lying
nearest to the Continent, and the Franks in Gaul. Ethelbert, the king of
Kent, had even married the Frankish princess, Bertha. He allowed his
Christian wife to bring a bishop to her new home and gave her the deserted
church of St. Martin at Canterbury as a place of worship. Queen Bertha's
fervent desire for the conversion of her husband and his people prepared
the way for an event of first importance in English history--the mission
of Augustine.

MISSION OF AUGUSTINE, 597 A.D.

The pope at this time was Gregory I, better known, from his services to
the Roman Church, as Gregory the Great. [26] The kingdom of Kent, with its
Christian queen, must have seemed to him a promising field for missionary
enterprise. Gregory, accordingly, sent out the monk Augustine with forty
companions to carry the Gospel to the heathen English. The king of Kent,
already well disposed toward the Christian faith, greeted the missionaries
kindly and told them that they were free to convert whom they would.
Before long he and his court embraced Christianity, and the people of Kent
soon followed the royal example. The monks were assigned a residence in
Canterbury, a city which has ever since remained the religious capital of
England. From Kent Christianity in its Roman form gradually spread into
the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

[Illustration: ST. MARTIN'S CHURCH, CANTERBURY
The present church, dating from the thirteenth century occupies the site
of a chapel built before the arrival of Augustine, The walls still contain
some of the Roman bricks used in the original structure. St Martin's
Church was the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury.]

CELTIC CHRISTIANITY

Augustine and his monks were not the first missionaries to Britain. Roman
soldiers, merchants, and officials had introduced Christianity among the
Britons as early as second century. During the fifth century the famous
St. Patrick had carried Christianity to the heathen Irish. The Anglo-Saxon
invasion of Britain drove many Christians to Ireland, and that island in
the sixth and seventh centuries became a center from which devoted monks
went forth to labor in western Scotland and northern Britain [27] Here
they came in contact with the Roman missionaries.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CELTIC AND ROMAN CHRISTIANITY

The Celtic Christians followed some customs which differed from those
observed by Roman Christians. They computed the date on which Easter fell
according to a system unlike that of the Romans. They permitted their
priests to marry; the Romans forbade the practice. Their monks shaved the
front of the head from ear to ear as a tonsure, while Roman monks shaved
the top of the head, leaving a "crown of thorns." These differences may
not seem very important, but they were enough to prevent the cooperation
of Celtic and Roman missionaries for the conversion of the heathen.

[Illustration: CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL
The choir dates from the twelfth century, the nave, transepts, and central
tower, from the fifteenth century. One of the two towers at the west front
was built in 1834-1840 A.D. The beautiful stained glass in the windows of
the choir belongs to the thirteenth century.]

SYNOD OF WHITBY, 664 A.D.

The rivalry between Celtic and Roman Christians was finally settled at a
church gathering, or synod, called by the king of Northumbria at Whitby.
The main controversy at this synod concerned the proper date for Easter.
In the course of the debate it was asserted that the Roman custom had the
sanction of St. Peter, to whom Christ had intrusted the keys of heaven.
This statement was enough for the Northumbrian king, who thereupon decided
in favor of the Roman claim, declaring that he would not oppose St. Peter,
"lest when I come before the gates of the kingdom of heaven, he who holds
the keys should not open to me." [28] The representatives of the Celtic
Church then withdrew from England, leaving the field clear for Roman
missionaries.

THE BRITISH ISLES BECAME ROMAN CATHOLIC

The decision of the Synod of Whitby in favor of Rome meant that all
England henceforth would recognize the pope's authority in religious
matters. It remained a Roman Catholic country until the time of the
Reformation, nearly nine hundred years later. [29] The Celtic Christians
in Ireland and Scotland also in the course of time became the devoted
children of the Roman Church.

113. THE FUSION OF GERMANS AND ROMANS

THE GERMANIC KINGDOMS

We have now followed the fortunes of the Germans for five centuries from
the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Most of their kingdoms, it has
been seen, were not permanent. The Visigothic and Burgundian dominions in
Gaul yielded to the Franks, and those of the Visigoths in Spain, to the
Mohammedan Arabs. [30] The Vandal possessions in North Africa were
regained by the emperors at Constantinople. [31] The rule of the
Ostrogoths in Italy endured for only sixty years and that of the Lombards
passed away after two centuries. The kingdoms established by the Franks
and the Anglo-Saxons alone developed into lasting states.

HINDRANCES TO THE FUSION OF GERMANS AND ROMANS

But even where the Germans did not found permanent kingdoms, they mingled
with the subject provincials and adopted much of the old Roman
civilization. The fusion of the two peoples naturally required a long
time, being scarcely completed before the middle of the tenth century. It
was hindered, in the first place, by the desire of the Germans to secure
the lands of the Romans. Wherever the barbarians settled, they
appropriated a large part of the agricultural soil. How much they took
varied in different countries. The Ostrogoths seem to have seized one-
third of the land in Italy; the Visigoths, two-thirds of that in Gaul and
Spain; the Anglo-Saxons, perhaps all the tillable soil of Britain. It
could not but be galling to the Romans to surrender their farms to the
barbarians. In the second place, the Germans often assessed heavy taxes on
the Romans, which they themselves refused to pay. Tax-paying seemed to the
Germans a mark of servitude. In the third place, a barrier between the two
peoples arose from the circumstance that each had its particular law. For
several centuries following the invasions there was one law for the
Romans--that which they had enjoyed under the empire--and another law for
the Germans--their old tribal customs. After the Germans had lived for
some time in contact with the Romans they wrote out their laws in the
Latin language. These "Laws of the Barbarians" still survive and throw
much light on their early beliefs and manners.

CONDITIONS FAVORING FUSION

In spite of the hindrances to fusion, it seems true that the Germans and
the Romans felt no great dislike for each other and that, as a rule, they
freely intermingled. Certain conditions directly favored this result.
First, many Germans had found their way within the empire as hired
soldiers, colonists, and slaves, long before the invasions began. Second,
the Germanic invaders came in relatively small numbers. Third, the Germans
entered the Roman world not as destroyers, but as homeseekers. They felt a
real reverence for Roman civilization. And fourth, some of the principal
Germanic nations, including the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals, were
already Christians at the time of their invasions, while other nations,
such as the Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, were afterwards converted to
Christianity. As long, however, as most of the Germans remained Arian
Christians [32] their belief stood in the way of friendly intercourse with
the Roman provincials, who had accepted the Catholic faith.

[Illustration: Map, THE PEOPLES OF EUROPE at the beginning of the Tenth
Century.]

CONTRAST BETWEEN EAST AND WEST

If western Europe during the early Middle Ages presented a scene of
violence and confusion while the Germans were settling in their new homes,
a different picture was afforded by eastern Europe. Here the Roman Empire
still survived and continued to uphold for centuries the Roman tradition
of law and order. The history of that empire forms the theme of the
following chapter.

STUDIES

1. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Charlemagne,
distinguishing his hereditary possessions from those which he acquired by
conquest.

2. On an outline map indicate the boundaries of the empire of Otto the
Great.

3. What events are connected with the following places: Soissons; Mersen;
Whitby; Reims; Verdun; Canterbury; and Strassburg?

4. What is the historical importance of Augustine, Henry the Fowler, Pepin
the Short, Charles Martel, Egbert, and Ethelbert?

5. Give dates for the following events: battle of Tours; crowning of
Charlemagne as emperor; crowning of Otto the Great as emperor; deposition
of Romulus Augustulus; Augustine's mission to England; and the Treaty of
Verdun.

6. Explain the following expressions: "do-nothing kings"; _missi
dominici_; Holy Roman Empire; and "Donation of Pepin."

7. Why was the extinction of the Ostrogothic kingdom a misfortune for
Italy?

8. Why did Italy remain for so many centuries after the Lombard invasion
merely "a geographical expression"?

9. What difference did it make whether Clovis became an Arian or a
Catholic?

10. What events in the lives of Clovis and Pepin the Short contributed to
the alliance between the Franks and the popes?

11. What provinces of the Roman Empire in the West were not included
within the limits of Charlemagne's empire?

12. What countries of modern Europe are included within the limits of
Charlemagne's empire?

13. Compare the _missi dominici_ with the "eyes and ears" of Persian
kings.

14. What is the origin of the word "emperor"? As a title distinguish it
from that of "king."

15. Why has Lothair's kingdom north of the Alps been called the "strip of
trouble"?

16. In what parts of the British Isles are Celtic languages still spoken?

17. How did the four English counties, Sussex, Essex, Norfolk, and
Suffolk, receive their names?

18. What was the importance of the Synod of Whitby?

19. Set forth the conditions which hindered, and those which favored, the
fusion of Germans and Romans.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter i,
"Stories of the Lombard Kings"; chapter ii, "Charlemagne."

[2] See page 236.

[3] See page 236.

[4] See page 309.

[5] The modern kingdom of Italy dates from 1861-1870 A.D.

[6] See page 245.

[7] His name is properly spelled Chlodweg, which later became Ludwig, and
in French, Louis.

[8] _Allemagne_. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Gaul came to call
their country _France_ and themselves _Francais_ after their conquerors,
the Germanic Franks.

[9] Gregory of Tours, _Historia Francorum_, ii, 31.

[10] From Merovech, grandfather of Clovis.

[11] See page 379.

[12] So called from Pepin's son, Charles the Great (in Latin, _Carolus
Magnus_). The French form of his name is Charlemagne.

[13] In 1870 A.D. the States of the Church were added to the newly formed
kingdom of Italy.

[14] Einhard, _Vita Caroli Magni_, 25.

[15] The rearguard of Charlemagne's army, when returning from Spain, was
attacked and overwhelmed by the mountaineers of the Pyrenees. The incident
gave rise to the famous French epic known as the _Song of Roland_.

[16] The title of "Holy Roman Emperor," assumed by the later successors of
Charlemagne, was kept by them till 1806 A.D.

[17] The French name Lorraine and the German name Lothringen are both
derived from the Latin title of Lothair's kingdom--_Lotharii regnum_.

[18] See page 306.

[19] The others were Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and Lorraine.

[20] The Hohenzollerns became electors of Brandenburg in 1415 A.D., kings
of Prussia in 1701, and emperors of Germany in 1871.

[21] The Magyar settlement in central Europe had the important result of
dividing the Slavic peoples into three groups. Those who remained south of
the Danube (Serbians, Croatians, etc.) were henceforth separated from the
northwestern Slavs (Bohemians, Moravians, and Poles) and from the eastern
Slavs (Russians). See the map facing page 326.

[22] See the Illustration, page 308.

[23] See pages 455-463.

[24] See page 246.

[25] See page 208.

[26] See page 350.

[27] The enthusiasm of the Celtic Christians reached such proportions that
it swept back upon the Continent. In the seventh and eighth centuries
Irish missionaries worked among the heathen Germans and founded
monasteries in Burgundy, Lombardy, and southern Germany (now Switzerland).

[28] Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, iii, 25.

[29] The separation from Rome occurred in 1534 A.D., during the reign of
Henry VIII.

[30] See page 378.

[31] See page 330.

[32] See page 236.

CHAPTER XIV

EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 395-1096 A.D.

114. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

SURVIVAL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

The Roman Empire in the West moved rapidly to its "fall" in 476 A.D., at
the hands of the Germanic invaders. The Roman Empire in the East, though
threatened by enemies from without and weakened by civil conflicts from
within, endured for more than a thousand years. Until the middle of the
eleventh century it was the strongest state in Europe, except during the
reign of Charlemagne, when the Frankish kingdom eclipsed it. Until the
middle of the fifteenth century it preserved the name, the civilization,
and some part of the dominions, of ancient Rome. [1]

CAUSES OF THE SURVIVAL

The long life of the Roman Empire in the East is one of the marvels of
history. Its great and constant vitality appears the more remarkable, when
one considers that it had no easily defensible frontiers, contained many
different races with little in common, and on all sides faced hostile
states. The empire survived so long, because of its vast wealth and
resources, its despotic, centralized government, the strength of its army,
and the almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the
capital city.

CHARACTER OF THE EMPIRE

The changing fortunes of the empire during the Middle Ages are reflected
in some of the names by which it is often known. The term "Greek Empire"
expresses the fact that the state became more and more Greek in character,
owing to the loss, first of the western provinces in the fifth century,
and then of Syria and Egypt in the seventh century. Another term--
"Byzantine Empire"--appropriately describes the condition of the state in
still later times, when its possessions were reduced to Constantinople
(ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the neighborhood of that city.
But through all this period the rulers at Constantinople regarded
themselves as the true successors of Augustus, Diocletian, and
Constantine. They never admitted the right of Charlemagne and Otto the
Great to establish a rival Roman Empire in western Europe. [2] They
claimed to be the only legitimate heirs of Old Rome.

115. THE REIGN OF JUSTINIAN, 527-565 A.D.

SUCCESSORS OF THEODOSIUS, 395-527 A.D.

The history of the Roman Empire in the East, for more than one hundred
years after the death of Theodosius, is uneventful. His successors, though
unable to prevent the Germans from seizing Italy and the other western
provinces, managed to keep their own dominions intact. The eastern
provinces escaped the fate of those in the West, because they were more
populous and offered greater obstacles to the barbarian invaders, who
followed the line of least resistance. The gradual recovery of the empire
in strength and warlike energy prepared the way for a really eminent
ruler--Justinian.

JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA

Justinian is described as a man of noble bearing, simple in his habits,
affable in speech, and easy of approach to all his subjects. Historians
have often drawn attention to his wonderful activity of mind and power of
steady industry. So great was his zeal for work that one of his courtiers
called him "the emperor who never sleeps." Possessed of large ideas and
inspired by the majesty of Rome, Justinian aimed to be a great conqueror,
a great lawgiver, and a great restorer of civilization. His success in
whatever he undertook must be ascribed in part to his wife, Theodora, whom
he associated with himself on the throne. Theodora, strong of mind and
wise in counsel, made a worthy helpmate for Justinian, who more than once
declared that in affairs of state he had consulted his "revered wife."

CONQUESTS OF JUSTINIAN

It was the ambition of Justinian to conquer the Germanic kingdoms which
had been formed out of the Mediterranean provinces. In this task he relied
chiefly on the military genius of Belisarius, one of the world's foremost
commanders. Belisarius was able in one short campaign to destroy the
Vandal kingdom in North Africa. [3] The Vandals by this time had lost
their early vigor; they made but a feeble resistance; and their Roman
subjects welcomed Belisarius as a deliverer. Justinian awarded a triumph
to his victorious general, an honor which for five centuries emperors
alone had enjoyed. The conquest of North Africa, together with the islands
of Sardinia and Corsica, was followed by the overthrow of the Ostrogothic
kingdom in Sicily and Italy. [4] Justinian also recovered from the
Visigoths [5] the southeastern part of Spain. He could now say with truth
that the Mediterranean was once more a Roman sea. [6]

[Illustration: A MOSAIC OF JUSTINIAN
A mosaic dating from 547 A.D., in the church of San Vitale, Ravenna. It
shows the emperor (in the center) with a bishop, his suite and imperial
guards. The picture probably gives us a fair idea of Justinian's
appearance, though it represents him as somewhat younger than he was at
the time.]

CODIFICATION OF ROMAN LAW

The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than his work as a
lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman law, including the
legislation of the popular assemblies, the decrees of the Senate, the
edicts of the of Roman praetors and emperors, and the decisions of learned
lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in scientific
form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal scholars to perform this
task. The result of their labors, in which the emperor himself assisted,
was the publication of the _Corpus Juris Civilis_, the "Body of Civil
Law." Under this form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become
the foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France,
Germany, and other European countries. These principles even influenced
the Common law of England, which has been adopted by the United States.
[7] The _Corpus Juris Civilis_, because of this widespread influence, is
justly regarded as one of Rome's most important gifts to the world.

CIVILIZING WORK OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian's claim to the title of "Great" rests also on his civilizing
work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as the provinces, of
the empire. During his reign roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired,
and commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It was at this time that two
Christian missionaries brought from China the eggs of the silkworm, and
introduced the manufacture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian
gained special fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout
his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed frontiers,
splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches. The most noteworthy
monument to his piety is the church of Sancta Sophia [8] at
Constantinople, now used as a Mohammedan mosque. By his conquests, his
laws, and his buildings, Justinian revived for a time the waning glory of
imperial Rome.

116. THE EMPIRE AND ITS ASIATIC FOES

AFTER JUSTINIAN

The Roman Empire in the East did not long remain at the pinnacle of
greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His conquests, indeed,
weakened rather than strengthened the empire, since now there were much
more extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his death
it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lombards [9] soon seized
Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed their contest against the
Roman power.

[Illustration: Map, THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST DURING THE TENTH AND
ELEVENTH CENTURIES]

PERSIANS

The struggle with the Persians was an inheritance from earlier times. [10]
Under an ambitious king, Chosroes II, the Persians overran all the Asiatic
provinces of the empire. A savior arose, however, in the person of the
Roman emperor, Heraclius (610-641 A.D.). His brilliant campaigns against
Chosroes partook of the nature of a crusade, or "holy war," for the
Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem and had stolen away
the True Cross, the most sacred relic of Christendom. Heraclius recovered
all his provinces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained
them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy victims to foes
still more terrible than the Persians. These were the Arabs.

ARABS

Heraclius had not closed his reign before he saw all his victories undone
by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of invasion tore away Syria
and Egypt from the empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the shores
of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Constantinople, the Arabs
carried their arms to the West and seized North Africa, Spain, part of
southern Italy, and the Mediterranean islands. Asia Minor and the Balkan
peninsula still held out, however, and during the tenth century a line of
able rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of their lost
provinces.

SELJUK TURKS

During the eleventh century the empire had to face new enemies. These were
the Seljuk Turks, [11] fierce nomads from the steppes beyond the Caspian.
After their conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with irresistible
force through the East and conquered nearly all Asia Minor. The ruin of
this country, in earlier ages one of the most populous and flourishing
regions of the world, dates from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist
their further advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 A.D. the help of
the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the First
Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history began. (See Chapter
XX.)

WORK OF THE EMPIRE IN ASIA

Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman Empire in
the East was engaged in a long struggle with the foes--Persians, Arabs,
and Seljuk Turks--which successively attacked its dominions. By its
stubborn resistance of the advance of the invaders the old empire
protected the young states of Europe from attack, until they grew strong
enough to meet and repulse the hordes of Asia. This service to
civilization was not less important than that which had been performed by
Greece and Rome in their contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians.

117. THE EMPIRE AND ITS FOES IN EUROPE

SLAVS

The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed the beginning of
the Slavic [12] settlements in southeastern Europe. The Slavs belonged to
the Indo-European race, but had not progressed in civilization as far as
the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in western Russia,
whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the Elbe, and the Danube. We have
already mentioned the campaigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler
waged against them. [13] The emperors at Constantinople were less
successful in resisting that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the
Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed on farther
and farther, until they reached the southern extremity of ancient Greece.
They avoided the cities, but formed peasant communities in the open
country, where they readily mingled with the inhabitants. Their
descendants have remained in the Balkan peninsula to this day. The
inhabitants of modern Serbia [14] are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there
is a considerable strain of Slavic blood.