EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

H >> HUTTON WEBSTER >> EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45

EPICUREANISM

The system of philosophy called Epicureanism was founded by a Greek named
Epicurus. He taught in Athens during the earlier part of the third century
B.C. Epicurus believed that pleasure is the sole good, pain, the sole
evil. He meant by pleasure not so much the passing enjoyments of the hour
as the permanent happiness of a lifetime. In order to be happy men should
not trouble themselves with useless luxuries, but should lead the "simple
life." They must be virtuous, for virtue will bring more real satisfaction
than vice. Above all, men ought to free themselves from idle hopes and
fears about a future existence. The belief in the immortality of the soul,
said Epicurus, is only a delusion, for both soul and body are material
things which death dissolves into the atoms making up the universe. And if
there are any gods, he declared, they do not concern themselves with human
affairs. Some of the followers of Epicurus seemed to find in his
philosophic system justification for free indulgence in every appetite and
passion. Even to-day, when we call a person an "Epicurean," we think of
him as a selfish pleasure seeker.

STOICISM

The noblest of all pagan philosophies was Stoicism, founded by Zeno, a
contemporary of Epicurus. Virtue, said the Stoic, consists in living
"according to nature," that is, according to the Universal Reason or
Divine Providence that rules the world. The followers of this philosophy
tried, therefore, to ignore the feelings and exalt the reason as a guide
to conduct. They practiced self-denial, despised the pomps and vanities of
the world, and sought to rise above such emotions as grief, fear, hope,
and joy. The doctrines of Stoicism gained many adherents among the Romans
[28] and through them became a real moral force in the ancient world.
Stoicism is even now no outworn creed. Our very word "stoical" is a
synonym for calm indifference to pleasure or to pain.

96. ROMAN LITERATURE

RISE OF ROMAN LITERATURE

The beginnings of Roman literature go back to the third century B.C., when
some knowledge of the Greek language became increasingly common in Rome.
The earlier writers--chiefly poets and dramatists--did little original
work, and usually were content to translate and adapt the productions of
Greek authors for Roman audiences. During this period the Romans gradually
discovered the capabilities of their language for prose composition. The
republican institutions of Rome, like those of Athens, were highly
favorable to the art of public speaking. It was the development of oratory
which did most to mold the Latin language into fitness for the varied
forms of prose.

CICERO

Cicero, the greatest of Roman orators, created a style for Latin prose
composition which has been admired and imitated by men of letters even to
our own day. Latin, in his hands, became a magnificent instrument for the
expression of human thought. Cicero's qualities as an author are shown,
not only by his _Orations_, but also by the numerous _Epistles_ which he
wrote to friends and correspondents in all parts of the Roman world.
Besides their historical interest Cicero's letters are models of what good
letters ought to be--the expression of the writer's real thoughts and
feelings in simple, unstilted language. Cicero also composed a number of
_Dialogues_, chiefly on philosophical themes. If not very profound, they
are delightfully written, and long served as textbooks in the schools.

CAESAR

Another eminent statesman--Julius Caesar--won success in literature. As an
orator he was admitted by his contemporaries to stand second to Cicero.
None of his speeches have survived. We possess, however, his invaluable
_Commentaries_ on the Gallic and Civil wars. These works, though brief and
in most parts rather dull, are highly praised for their simple, concise
style and their mastery of the art of rapid narration.

VERGIL AND HORACE

The half century included within the Augustan Age marks a real epoch in
the history of Latin literature. The most famous poet of this period was
Vergil. The _Aeneid_, which he undertook at the suggestion of Augustus, is
his best-known work. In form the poem is a narrative of the adventures of
the Trojan hero, Aeneas, [29] but its real theme is the growth of Rome
under the fostering care of the gods. The _Aeneid_, though unfinished at
the author's death, became at once what it has always remained--the only
ancient epic worthy of comparison with the _Iliad_ or with the _Odyssey._
Another member of the Augustan circle was Vergil's friend and fellow-
worker, Horace. An imitative poet, Horace reproduced in Latin verse the
forms, and sometimes even the substance, of his Greek models. But, like
Vergil, what Horace borrowed he made his own by the added beauty which he
gave to it. His _Odes_ are perhaps the most admirable examples of literary
art to be found in any language.

LIVY

The most famous prose writer of the Augustan Age was Livy. His _History of
Rome_, beginning with Romulus and extending to Augustus, traced the rise
and growth of the Roman state during eight centuries of triumphal
progress. It did in prose what Vergil's _Aeneid_ had done in verse.

TACITUS

The period of the "Good Emperors" saw the rise of several important
authors, of whom one, the historian Tacitus, was a man of genius. The
crowning labor of his life was a history of Rome from Tiberius to
Domitian. Of this work, issued under the two titles of _Histories_ and
_Annals_, only about one-half is extant.

SURVIVAL OF ROMAN LITERATURE

Less than two hundred years separate Cicero and Tacitus. During this
period Latin authors, writing under the influence of old Greece,
accomplished much valuable work. Some of their productions are scarcely
inferior to the Greek masterpieces. In later centuries, when Greek
literature was either neglected or forgotten in the West, the literature
of Rome was still read and enjoyed. Even to-day a knowledge of it forms an
essential part of a "classical" education.

97. GREEK ARCHITECTURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

The existing monuments of Greek architecture--chiefly ruined temples--
afford some idea of its leading characteristics. The building materials
were limestone and white marble. The blocks of stone were not bound
together by cement, but by metal clamps which held them in a firm grip. It
was usual to color the ornamental parts of a temple and the open spaces
that served as a background for sculpture. The Greeks did not employ the
principle of the arch, in order to cover large spaces with a vaulted
ceiling. Their temples and other public buildings had only flat ceilings,
resting on long rows of columns. The column probably developed from the
wooden post or tree trunk used in timber construction. The capital at the
top of the column originated in the square wooden slab which supported the
heavy beam of the roof.

[Illustration: CORNER OF A DORIC FACADE]

[Illustration: CORNER OF AN IONIC FACADE]

THE DORIC COLUMN

The two Greek orders of architecture, Doric and Ionic, [30] are
distinguished mainly by differences in the treatment of the column. The
Doric column has no base of its own. The sturdy shaft is grooved
lengthwise with some twenty flutings. The capital is a circular band of
stone capped by a square block, all without decoration. The mainland of
Greece was the especial home of the Doric order. This was also the
characteristic style of southern Italy and Sicily.

THE IONIC COLUMN.

The Ionic column rests upon a base. Its shaft is tall and slender. The
beautifully carved capital swells outward into two spiral rolls, the ends
of which are curled under to form the "volutes." The Ionic order
flourished particularly in Asia Minor. It was well known, too, at Athens.

[Illustration: CAPITALS
The highly decorative Corinthian capital, modeled on acanthus leaves, came
into fashion in Alexandrian and Roman times. The Composite capital, as its
name indicates, combined details from the Ionic and Corinthian into one
ornate whole. This and the plain Tuscan capital were quite generally
employed by the Romans.]

NATURE OF THE GREEK TEMPLE

The temple formed the chief structure in a Greek city. It was very simple
in outline--merely a rectangular building provided with doors, but without
windows. Around it was a single or a double row of columns. Above them
rose the architrave, a plain band of massive stones which reached from one
column to another. Then came the frieze, adorned with sculptured reliefs,
then the horizontal cornice, and at the ends of the building the
triangular pediments formed by the sloping roof. The pediments were
sometimes decorated with statues. Since the temple was not intended to
hold a congregation of worshipers, but only to contain the image of the
god, the interior usually had little ornamentation.

[Illustration: THE PARTHENON
RESTORATION
PRESENT CONDITION
After serving as a temple for about nine centuries the Parthenon was
turned into a Christian church and later into a Mohammedan mosque. In 1687
A.D. the Venetians bombarded Athens and sent a shell into the center of
the building which the Turks had used as a powder magazine. The result was
an explosion that threw down the side walls and many of the columns.]

[Illustration: FIGURES FROM THE PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON]

[Illustration: FROM THE PARTHENON FRIEZE]

[Illustration: CORNER OF THE PARTHENON (RESTORED)]

[Illustration: CARYATID PORCH OF THE ERECHTHEUM]

UNIQUENESS OF THE GREEK TEMPLE

Greek temples were not very large, for hugeness was no object to the
builders. They were not even lavishly decorated. Their beauty lies, most
of all, in their harmonious proportions and perfect symmetry. In the best
examples of the Greek temple there are, for instance, no straight lines.
The columns are not set at equal intervals, but closer together near the
corners of the building. The shafts of the columns, instead of tapering
upward at a uniform rate, swell slightly toward the center. The artistic
eyes of the Greeks delighted in such subtle curves. These characteristics
make a classical temple unique of its kind. [31]

98. GREEK SCULPTURE

THE GREEK GENIUS IN SCULPTURE

The greatest achievement of the Greeks in art was their sculpture. Roman
artists surpassed them in the creation of massive architectural works;
modern artists have surpassed them in painting. In sculpture the Greeks
still remain unexcelled.

LOSS OF THE MASTERPIECES

The existing remains of Greek sculpture are very scanty. The statues of
gold and ivory vanished long ago. The bronze statues, formerly numbered by
thousands, have nearly all gone into the melting pot. Sculptures in marble
were turned into mortar or used as building materials. Those which escaped
such a fate were often ruined by wanton mutilation and centuries of
neglect. The statues which we still possess are mainly marble copies, made
in Roman times from Greek originals. It is as if the paintings by the old
masters of Europe, four centuries ago, were now known only in the
reproductions by modern artists of inferior powers.

MATERIALS

The Greek sculptor worked with a variety of materials. Wood was in common
use during primitive times. Terra cotta was employed at all periods for
statuettes a few inches in height. Productions in gold and ivory, from the
costliness of these objects, were extremely rare. Bronze was the favorite
material of some of the most eminent artists. The Greek sculptor
especially relied on the beautiful marbles in which his country abounded.

TECHNICAL PROCESSES

The methods employed by the ancient sculptor differed in some respects
from those followed by his modern successors. A Greek marble statue was
usually built up out of several parts. The joining was accomplished with
such skill as to escape ordinary observation. The preliminary work of
hewing out from the rough was done by means of chisels. The surface of the
marble afterwards received a careful polishing with the file, and also
with sand. Marble statues were always more or less painted. The coloring
seems to have been done sparingly, being applied, as a rule, only to the
features and draperies. Still, it is worth while to remember that the pure
white statues of modern sculptors would not have satisfied Greek artists
of the classical age.

VARIETIES OF GREEK SCUPLTURE

Greek sculpture existed in the two forms of bas-reliefs and statuary in
the round. Reliefs were chiefly used for temple pediments and friezes, and
also for the many grave monuments. Statues consisted of the images of the
gods set up in their shrines, the sculptures dedicated as offerings to
divinities, and the figures of statesmen, generals, and victorious
athletes raised in public places and sanctuaries.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SCULPTOR'S ART

This list will show how many were the opportunities which the ancient
sculptor enjoyed. The service of religion created a constant demand for
his genius. The numerous athletic contests and the daily sports of the
gymnasium gave him a chance to study living models in the handsome,
finely-shaped bodies of the contestants. With such inspiration it is not
remarkable that sculpture reached so high a development in ancient Greece.
[32]

99. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

THE ARCH AND DOME IN ROMAN BUILDINGS

In architecture the Romans achieved preeminence. The temples and other
public works of Greece seem almost insignificant beside the stupendous
edifices raised by Roman genius in every province of the empire. The
ability of the Romans to build on so large a scale arose from their use of
vaulted constructions. Knowledge of the round arch passed over from the
Orient to the Etruscans and from them to the Romans. [33] At first the
arch was employed mainly for gates, drainage sewers, aqueducts, and
bridges. In imperial times this device was adopted to permit the
construction of vast buildings with overarching domes. The principle of
the dome has inspired some of the finest creations of ancient and modern
architecture.

ROMAN USE OF CONCRETE AND RUBBLE

The Romans for many of their buildings made much use of concrete. Its
chief ingredient was _pozzolana_, a sand found in great abundance near
Rome and other sites. When mixed with lime, it formed a very strong
cement. This material was poured in a fluid state into timber casings,
where it quickly set and hardened. Small pieces of stone, called rubble,
were also forced down into the cement to give it additional stability.
Buildings of this sort were usually faced with brick, which in turn might
be covered with thin slabs of marble, thus producing an attractive
appearance.

TEMPLES

The triumphs of Roman architecture were not confined chiefly to sacred
edifices. Roman temples, indeed, are mostly copies from the Greek. In
comparison with their originals, they lack grace and refinement. There is
less accuracy in the masonry fitting and far less careful attention to
details of construction. A frequent departure from Greek models is found
in the restriction of the rows of pillars to the front of the building,
while the sides and rear are lined with "engaged" columns to give the idea
of a colonnade. [34] More characteristically Roman are vaulted temples,
such as the Pantheon, [35] where the circular dome is faced with a Greek
portico.

BASILICAS

Roman basilicas, of which only the ruins are now in existence, were once
found in every city. These were large, lofty buildings for the use of
judges and merchants. The chief feature of a basilica was the spacious
central hall flanked by a single or double row of columns, forming aisles
and supporting the flat roof. At one end of the hall was a semicircular
recess--the apse--where the judges held court. This arrangement of the
interior bears a close resemblance to the plan of the early Christian
church with its nave, choir (or chancel) and columned aisles. The
Christians, in fact, seem to have taken the familiar basilicas as the
models for their places of worship.

[Illustration: PLAN OF THE ULPIAN BASILICA
The hall measured 360 feet in length and 180 feet in width.]

[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF THE ULPIAN BASILICA (RESTORATION)
Built by the Emperor Trajan in connection with his Forum at Rome.]

AQUEDUCTS

Perhaps the most imposing, and certainly among the most useful, of Roman
structures were aqueducts. [36] There were sixty-eight in Italy and the
provinces. No less than fourteen supplied the capital city with water. The
aqueducts usually ran under the surface of the ground, as do our water
pipes. They were carried on arches only across depressions and valleys.
The Claudian aqueduct ran for thirty-six miles underground and for nine
and a half miles on arches. Though these monuments were intended simply as
engineering works, their heavy masses of rough masonry produce an
inspiring sense of power.

[Illustration: A ROMAN AQUEDUCT
The Pont du Gard near Nimes (ancient Nemausus) in southern France. Built
by the emperor Antoninus Pius. The bridge spans two hilltops nearly a
thousand feet apart. It carries an aqueduct with three tiers of massive
stone arches at a height of 160 feet above the stream. This is the finest
and best preserved aqueduct in existence.]

THERMAE

The abundant water supply furnished by the aqueducts was connected with a
system of great public baths, or _thermae_. [37] Scarcely a town or
village throughout the empire lacked one or more such buildings. Those at
Rome were constructed on a scale of magnificence of which we can form but
a slight conception from the ruins now in existence. In addition to many
elaborate arrangements for the bathers, the _thermae_ included lounging
and reading rooms, libraries, gymnasia, and even museums and galleries of
art. The baths, indeed, were splendid clubhouses, open at little or no
expense to every citizen of the metropolis.

[Illustration: THE COLOSSEUM]

TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS

A very characteristic example of Roman building is found in the triumphal
arches. [38] Their sides were adorned with bas-reliefs, which pictured the
principal scenes of a successful campaign. Memorial structures, called
columns of victory, [39] were also set up in Rome and other cities. Both
arch and column have been frequently imitated by modern architects.

[Illustration: A ROMAN CAMEO
Portrait of a youth cut in sardonyx. Probably of the first century A.D.]

CIRCUSES, THEATERS, AND AMPHITHEATERS

The palaces of Roman emperors and nobles, together with their luxurious
country houses, or villas, have all disappeared. A like fate has befallen
the enormous circuses, such as the Circus Maximus [40] at Rome and the
Hippodrome [41] at Constantinople. The Roman theaters that still survive
reproduce, in most respects, the familiar outlines of the Greek
structures. In the amphitheaters, where animal shows and gladiatorial
combats were exhibited, we have a genuinely Roman invention. The gigantic
edifice, called the Colosseum, in its way as truly typifies Roman
architectural genius as the Parthenon represents at its best that of the
Greeks.

ROMAN SCULPTURE

Roman sculpture owed much to Greek models. However, the portrait statues
and bas-reliefs show originality and illustrate the tendency of the Romans
toward realism in art. The sculptor tried to represent an historic person
as he really looked or an historic event, for example, a battle or a
triumphal procession, as it actually happened. The portrait statues of
Roman emperors and the bas-reliefs from the arch of Titus impress us at
once with a sense of their reality.

WALL PAINTINGS

Our knowledge of Roman painting is almost wholly confined to the wall
paintings found at Rome, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. What has survived is
apparently the work of ordinary craftsmen, who, if not Greeks, were deeply
affected by the Greek spirit. Most of the scenes they depict are taken
from classical mythology. The coloring is very rich; and the peculiar
shade of red used is known to-day by the name of "Pompeian red." The
practice of mural painting passed over from the Romans to European
artists, who have employed it in the frescoes of medieval and modern
churches.

100. ARTISTIC ATHENS

ART CENTERS OF ANTIQUITY

Athens and Rome were the artistic centers of the classical world.
Architects, sculptors, and painters lavished their finest efforts on the
adornment of these two capitals. Here there are still to be seen some of
the most beautiful and impressive monuments of antiquity.

ROADS AND SUBURBS OF ATHENS

Athens lies in the center of the Attic plain, about four miles from the
sea. [42] The city commands a magnificent view of purple-hued mountains
and the shining waters of the Aegean. Roads approached the ancient city
from all parts of Attica. Among these were the highway from Piraeus,
running between the Long Walls, [43] and the Sacred Way from Eleusis,
where the famous mysteries were yearly celebrated. [44] The suburbs of
Athens included the Outer Ceramicus, part of which was used as a national
cemetery, and a pleasure ground and gymnasium on the banks of the
Cephissus, called the Academy. Another resort, known as the Lyceum,
bordered the little stream of the Ilissus.

WALLS OF ATHENS

The traveler who passed through these suburbs came at length to the great
wall, nearly five miles in circumference, raised by Themistocles to
surround the settlement at the foot of the Acropolis. [45] The area
included within this wall made up Old Athens. About six centuries after
Themistocles the Roman emperor Hadrian, by building additional
fortifications on the east, brought an extensive quarter, called New
Athens, inside the city limits.

HILLS OF ATHENS

The region within the walls was broken up by a number of rocky eminences
which have a prominent place in the topography of Athens. Near the center
the Acropolis rises more than two hundred feet above the plain, its summit
crowned with monuments of the Periclean Age. Not far away is the hill
called the Areopagus. Here the Council of the Areopagus, a court of
justice in trials for murder, held its deliberations in the open air.
Beyond this height is the hill of the Pnyx. This was the meeting place of
the Athenian Assembly until the fourth century B.C., when the sessions
were transferred to the theater of Dionysus.

[Illustration: Map, ATHENS]

THE AGORA

The business and social center of an ancient city was the agora or market
place. The Athenian Agora lay in the hollow north of the Areopagus and
Acropolis. The square was shaded by rows of plane trees and lined with
covered colonnades. In the great days of the city, when the Agora was
filled with countless altars and shrines, it presented a most varied and
attractive scene.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS

Not all the splendid structures in Athens were confined to the Agora and
the Acropolis. On a slight eminence not far from the Agora, rose the so-
called "Theseum," [46] a marble temple in the Doric order. Another famous
temple, the colossal edifice known as the Olympieum, lay at some distance
from the Acropolis on the southeast. Fifteen of the lofty columns with
their Corinthian capitals are still standing. The theater of Dionysus [47]
is in a fair state of preservation. Beyond this are the remains of the
Odeum, or "Hall of Song," used for musical contests and declamations. The
original building was raised by Pericles, in imitation, it is said, of the
tent of Xerxes. The present ruins are those of the structure erected in
the second century A.D. by a public-spirited benefactor of Athens.

THE ACROPOLIS

The adornment of the Acropolis formed perhaps the most memorable
achievement of Pericles. [48] This rocky mount was approached on the
western side by a flight of sixty marble steps. To the right of the
stairway rose a small but very beautiful Ionic temple dedicated to Athena.
Having mounted the steps, the visitor passed through the superb entrance
gate, or Propylaea, which was constructed to resemble the front of a
temple with columns and pediment. Just beyond the Propylaea stood a great
bronze statue of the Guardian Athena, a masterpiece of the sculptor
Phidias.

[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS (RESTORATION)]

[Illustration: ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS FROM THE SOUTHWEST]

THE ERECHTHEUM

The Erechtheum, a temple which occupies part of the Acropolis, is in the
Ionic style. It may be regarded as the best existing example of this light
and graceful order. Perhaps the most interesting feature is the porch of
the Caryatides, with a marble roof supported by six pillars carved in the
semblance of maidens. [49] This curious but striking device has been often
copied by modern architects.

ARCHITECTURE OF THE PARTHENON

The other temple on the Acropolis is the world-famed edifice known as the
Parthenon, the shrine of the Virgin of the Athena. [50] The Parthenon
illustrates the extreme simplicity of a Greek temple. It had no great size
or height and included only two chambers. The rear room stored sacred
vessels and furniture used in worship, state treasure, and the more
valuable offerings intrusted to the goddess for safekeeping. The second
and larger room contained a colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena, the
work of Phidias. It faced the eastern entrance so that it might be bathed
in the rays of the rising sun. Apart from the large doors a certain amount
of light reached the interior through the semi-transparent marble tiles of
the roof. The Doric columns surrounding the building are marvels of fine
workmanship. The Parthenon, because of its perfection of construction and
admirable proportions, is justly regarded as a masterpiece of
architecture.