EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

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[Illustration: THE WALL OF ROME
Constructed by Aurelian and rebuilt by Honorius. The material is concrete
faced with brick, thickness 13 feet, greatest height 58 feet. This is
still the wall of the modern city, although at present no effort is made
to keep it in repair.]

75. THE "ABSOLUTE EMPERORS," 284-395 A.D.

REIGN OF DIOCLETIAN, 284-305 A.D.

Diocletian, whose reign is one of the most illustrious in Roman history,
entered the army as a common soldier, rose to high command, and fought his
way to the throne. A strong, ambitious man, Diocletian resolutely set
himself to the task of remaking the Roman government. His success in this
undertaking entitles him to rank, as a statesman and administrator, with
Augustus.

WEAKNESSES IN THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM

The reforms of Diocletian were meant to remedy those weaknesses in the
imperial system disclosed by the disasters of the preceding century. In
the first place, experience showed that the empire was unwieldy. There
were the distant frontiers on the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates to be
guarded; there were all the provinces to be governed. A single ruler,
however able and energetic, had more than he could do. In the second
place, the succession to the imperial throne was uncertain. Now an emperor
named his successor, now the Senate elected him, and now the swords of the
legionaries raised him to the purple. Such an unsettled state of affairs
constantly invited those struggles between rival pretenders which had so
nearly brought the empire to destruction.

DIOCLETIAN'S REFORMS

Diocletian began his reforms by adopting a scheme for "partnership
emperors." He shared the Roman world with a trusted lieutenant named
Maximian. Each was to be an Augustus, with all the honors of an emperor.
Diocletian ruled the East; Maximian ruled the West. Further partnership
soon seemed advisable, and so each _Augustus_ chose a younger associate,
or _Caesar_, to aid him in the government and at his death or abdication
to become his heir. Diocletian also remodeled the provincial system. The
entire empire, including Italy, was divided into more than one hundred
provinces. They were grouped into thirteen dioceses and these, in turn,
into four prefectures. [4] This reform much lessened the authority of the
provincial governor, who now ruled over a small district and had to obey
the vicar of his diocese.

THE NEW ABSOLUTISM

The emperors, from Diocletian onward, were autocrats. They bore the proud
title of _Dominus_ ("Lord"). They were treated as gods. Everything that
touched their persons was sacred. They wore a diadem of pearls and
gorgeous robes of silk and gold, like those of Asiatic monarchs. They
filled their palaces with a crowd of fawning, flattering nobles, and
busied themselves with an endless round of stately and impressive
ceremonials. Hitherto a Roman emperor had been an _imperator_, [5] the
head of an army. Now he became a king, to be greeted, not with the old
military salute, but with the bent knee and the prostrate form of
adoration. Such pomps and vanities, which former Romans would have thought
degrading, helped to inspire reverence among the servile subjects of a
later age. If it was the aim of Augustus to disguise, it was the aim of
Diocletian to display, the unbounded power of a Roman emperor.

CONSTANTINE, SOLE EMPEROR, 324-337 A.D.

There can be little doubt that Diocletian's reforms helped to prolong the
existence of the empire. In one respect, however, they must be pronounced
a failure. They did not end the disputes about the succession. Only two
years after the abdication of Diocletian there were six rival pretenders
for the title of _Augustus_. Their dreary struggles continued, until at
length two emperors were left--Constantine in the West, Licinius in the
East. After a few years of joint rule another civil war made Constantine
supreme. The Roman world again had a single master.

REIGN OF CONSTANTINE

Constantine was an able general and a wise statesman. Two events of
lasting importance have made his reign memorable. It was Constantine who
recognized Christianity as one of the religions of the empire and thus
paved the way for the triumph of that faith over the ancient paganism. His
work in this connection will be discussed presently. It was Constantine,
also, who established a new capital for the Roman world at Byzantium [6]
on the Bosporus. He christened it "New Rome," but it soon took the
emperor's name as Constantinople, the "City of Constantine." [7]

FOUNDATION OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Several good reasons could be urged for the removal of the world's
metropolis from the Tiber to the Bosporus. The Roman Empire was ceasing to
be one empire. Constantine wanted a great city for the eastern half to
balance Rome in the western half. Again, Constantinople, far more than
Rome, was the military center of the empire. Rome lay too far from the
vulnerable frontiers; Constantinople occupied a position about equidistant
from the Germans on the lower Danube and the Persians on the Euphrates.
Finally, Constantine believed that Christianity, which he wished to become
the prevailing religion, would encounter less opposition and criticism in
his new city than at Rome, with its pagan atmosphere and traditions.
Constantinople was to be not simply a new seat of government but also
distinctively a Christian capital. Such it remained for more than eleven
centuries. [8]

AFTER CONSTANTINE, 337-395 A.D.

After the death of Constantine the Roman world again entered on a period
of disorder. The inroads of the Germans across the Danube and the Rhine
threatened the European provinces of the empire with dissolution. The
outlook in the Asiatic provinces, overrun by the Persians, was no less
gloomy. Meanwhile the eastern and western halves of the empire tended more
and more to grow apart. The separation between the two had become well
marked by the close of the fourth century. After the death of the emperor
Theodosius (395 A.D.) there came to be in fact, if not in name, a Roman
Empire in the East and a Roman Empire in the West.

POLITICAL SITUATION IN 395 A.D.

More than four hundred years had now elapsed since the battle of Actium
made Octavian supreme in the Roman world. If we except the abandonment of
Trajan's conquests beyond the Danube and the Euphrates, [9] no part of the
huge empire had as yet succumbed to its enemies. The subject peoples,
during these four centuries, had not tried to overthrow the empire or to
withdraw from its protection. The Roman state, men believed, would endure
forever. Yet the times were drawing nigh when the old order of things was
to be broken up; when barbarian invaders were to seize the fairest
provinces as their own; and when new kingdoms, ruled by men of Germanic
speech, were to arise in lands that once obeyed Rome.

76. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURIES

THE "FALL" OF ROME

Rome, it has been said, was not built in a day; the rule of Rome was not
destroyed in a day. When we speak of the "fall" of Rome, we have in mind,
not a violent catastrophe which suddenly plunged the civilized world into
ruin, but rather the slow and gradual decay of ancient society throughout
the basin of the Mediterranean. This decay set in long before the Germans
and the Persians became a serious danger to the empire. It would have
continued, doubtless, had there been no Germans and Persians to break
through the frontiers and destroy. The truth seems to be that, during the
third and fourth centuries of our era, classical civilization, like an
overtrained athlete, had grown "stale."

DEPOPULATION DUE TO THE SLAVE SYSTEM

It is not possible to set forth all the forces which century after century
had been sapping the strength of the state. The most obvious element of
weakness was the want of men to fill the armies and to cultivate the
fields. The slave system seems to have been partly responsible for this
depopulation. The peasant on his little homestead could not compete with
the wealthy noble whose vast estates were worked by gangs of slaves. The
artisan could not support himself and his family on the pittance that kept
his slave competitor alive. Peasants and artisans gradually drifted into
the cities, where the public distributions of grain, wine, and oil assured
them of a living with little expense and almost without exertion. In both
Italy and the provinces there was a serious decline in the number of free
farmers and free workingmen.

"RACE SUICIDE"

But slavery was not the only cause of depopulation. There was a great deal
of what has been called "race suicide" in the old Roman world. Well-to-do
people, who could easily support large families, often refused to be
burdened with them. Childlessness, however, was not confined to the
wealthy, since the poorer classes, crowded in the huge lodging houses of
the cities, had no real family life. Roman emperors, who saw how difficult
it was to get a sufficient number of recruits for the army, and how whole
districts were going to waste for lack of people to cultivate them, tried
to repopulate the empire by force of law. They imposed penalties for the
childlessness and celibacy of the rich, and founded institutions for the
rearing of children, that the poor might not fear to raise large families.
Such measures were scarcely successful. "Race suicide" continued during
pagan times and even during the Christian age.

LOSS OF REVENUES

The next most obvious element of weakness was the shrinkage of the
revenues. The empire suffered from want of money, as well as from want of
men. To meet the heavy cost of the luxurious court, to pay the salaries of
the swarms of public officials, to support the idle populace in the great
cities required a vast annual income. But just when public expenditures
were rising by leaps and bounds, it became harder and harder to secure
sufficient revenue. Smaller numbers meant fewer taxpayers. Fewer taxpayers
meant a heavier burden on those who survived to pay.

ECONOMIC RUIN

These two forces--the decline in population and the decline in wealth--
worked together to produce economic ruin. It is no wonder, therefore, that
in province after province large tracts of land went out of cultivation,
that the towns decayed, and that commerce and manufactures suffered an
appalling decline. "Hard times" settled on the Roman world.

INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY

Doubtless still other forces were at work to weaken the state and make it
incapable of further resistance to the barbarians. Among such forces we
must reckon Christianity itself. By the close of the fourth century
Christianity had become the religion of the empire. The new faith, as we
shall soon see, helped, not to support, but rather to undermine, pagan
society.

77. THE PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY

DECLINE OF PAGANISM

Several centuries before the rise of Christianity many Greek thinkers
began to feel a growing dissatisfaction with the crude faith that had come
down to them from prehistoric times. They found it more and more difficult
to believe in the Olympian deities, who were fashioned like themselves and
had all the faults of mortal men. [10] An adulterous Zeus, a bloodthirsty
Ares, and a scolding Hera, as Homer represents them, were hardly
divinities that a cultured Greek could love and worship. For educated
Romans, also, the rites and ceremonies of the ancient religion came
gradually to lose their meaning. The worship of the Roman gods had never
appealed to the emotions. Now it tended to pass into the mere mechanical
repetition of prayers and sacrifices. Even the worship of the Caesars,
[11] which did much to hold the empire together, failed to satisfy the
spiritual wants of mankind. It made no appeal to the moral nature; it
brought no message, either of fear or hope, about a future world and a
life beyond the grave.

STOICISM

During these centuries a system of Greek philosophy, called Stoicism,
gained many adherents among the Romans. Any one who will read the Stoic
writings, such as those of the noble emperor, Marcus Aurelius, [12] will
see how nearly Christian was the Stoic faith. It urged men to forgive
injuries--to "bear and forbear." It preached the brotherhood of man. It
expressed a humble and unfaltering reliance on a divine Providence. To
many persons of refinement Stoicism became a real religion. But since
Stoic philosophy could reach and influence only the educated classes, it
could not become a religion for all sorts and conditions of men.

THE ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES

Many Greeks found a partial satisfaction of their religious longings in
secret rites called mysteries. Of these the most important grew up at
Eleusis, [13] a little Attic town thirteen miles from Athens. They were
connected with the worship of Demeter, goddess of vegetation and of the
life of nature. The celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries came in
September and lasted nine days. When the candidates for admission to the
secret rites were worked up to a state of religious excitement, they
entered a brilliantly lighted hall and witnessed a passion play dealing
with the legend of Demeter. They seem to have had no direct moral
instruction but saw, instead, living pictures and pantomimes which
represented the life beyond the grave and held out to them the promise of
a blessed lot in another world. As an Athenian orator said, "Those who
have shared this initiation possess sweeter hopes about death and about
the whole of life." [14]

INFLUENCE OF THE MYSTERIES

The Eleusinian mysteries, though unknown in the Homeric Age, were already
popular before the epoch of the Persian wars. They became a Panhellenic
festival open to all Greeks, women as well as men, slaves as well as
freemen. The privilege of membership was later extended to Romans. During
the first centuries of our era the influence of the mysteries increased,
as faith in the Olympian religion declined. They formed one of the last
strongholds of paganism and endured till the triumph of Christianity in
the Roman world.

ORIENTAL RELIGIONS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The Asiatic conquests of Alexander, followed in later centuries by the
extension of Roman rule over the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean,
brought the classical peoples into contact with new religions which had
arisen in the Orient. Slaves, soldiers, traders, and travelers carried the
eastern faiths to the West, where they speedily won many followers. Even
before the downfall of the republic the deities of Asia Minor, Egypt, and
Persia had found a home at Rome. Under the empire many men and women were
attracted to their worship.

MITHRA

Perhaps the most remarkable of the Asiatic religions was Mithraism. Mithra
first appears as a Persian sun god, the leader of Ahuramazda's hosts in
the ceaseless struggle against the forces of darkness and evil. [15] As a
god of light Mithra was also a god of truth and purity. His worship,
spreading over the length and breadth of the Roman Empire, became the
noblest of all pagan faiths. Men saw in Mithra a Lord and Giver of Life,
who protected the weak and miserable, cleansed the sinner, conquered
death, and procured for his faithful followers the crown of immortality.

[Illustration: A MITHRAIC MONUMENT
A bas relief discovered in 1838 A.D. in a cave near Heidelberg, Germany.
The central group represents Mithra slaying the bull. The smaller reliefs
show scenes from the life of Mithra, including his birth from the rock and
his ascent to Ahuramazda.]

THE WORSHIP OF MITHRA

The Mithraic worship took the form of a mystery with seven grades, or
degrees, through which candidates passed by ordeals of initiation. The
rites included a kind of baptism with holy water, a sacrificial meal of
bread and wine, and daily litanies to the sun. Mithra was represented as a
youthful hero miraculously born from a rock at the dawn of day; for this
reason his worship was always conducted underground in natural or
artificial caves, or in cellars. At the back of one of these subterranean
temples would be often a picture of Mithra slaying a bull, and an
inscription: "To the Unconquerable Sun, to Mithra." [16]

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ORIENTAL RELIGIONS

The new Oriental religions all appealed to the emotions. They helped to
satisfy the spiritual wants of men and women, by dwelling on the need of
purification from sin and by holding forth the prospect of a happier life
beyond the tomb. It is not strange, therefore, that they penetrated every
province of the Roman Empire and flourished as late as the fourth century
of our era. Christianity had no more dangerous antagonists than the
followers of Mithra and other eastern divinities.

78. RISE AND SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE JEWS

Christianity rose among the Jews, for Jesus was a Jew and his disciples
were Jews. At the time of the death of Jesus [17] his immediate followers
numbered scarcely a Christianity hundred persons. The catastrophe of the
crucifixion struck them with sorrow and dismay. When, however, the
disciples came to believe in the resurrection of their master, a wonderful
impetus was given to the growth of the new religion. They now asserted
that Jesus was the true Messiah, or Christ, who by rising from the dead
had sealed the truth of his teachings. For several years after the
crucifixion, the disciples remained at Jerusalem, preaching and making
converts. The new doctrines met so much opposition on the part of Jewish
leaders in the capital city that the followers of Jesus withdrew to
Samaria, Damascus, and Antioch. In all these places there were large
Jewish communities, among whom Peter and his fellow apostles labored
zealously.

[Illustration: Map, PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST]

[Illustration: MODERN JERUSALEM AND THE MOUNT OF OLIVES]

MISSIONARY LABORS OF PAUL

Up to this time the new faith had been spread only among the Jews. The
first Christians did not neglect to keep up all the customs of the Jewish
religion. It was even doubted for a while whether any but Jews could
properly be allowed within the Christian fold. A new convert, Saul of
Tarsus, afterwards the Apostle Paul, did most to admit the Gentiles, or
pagans, to the privileges of the new religion. Though born a Jew, Paul had
been trained in the schools of Tarsus, a city of Asia Minor which was a
great center of Greek learning. He possessed a knowledge of Greek
philosophy, and particularly of Stoicism. This broad education helped to
make him an acceptable missionary to Greek-speaking peoples. During more
than thirty years of unceasing activity Paul established churches in Asia
Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and Italy. To many of these churches he wrote
the letters (epistles), which have found a place in the New Testament. So
large a part of the doctrines of Christianity has been derived from Paul's
writings that we may well speak of him as the second founder of the
Christian faith.

[Illustration: MADONNA AND CHILD
The earliest known representation of Mary and the infant Jesus. The
prophet Isaiah is shown pointing to the new star. The picture dates from
about 200 A.D. and comes from the catacombs of St. Priscilla.]

CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE GENTILES

Christianity advanced with marvelous rapidity over the Roman world. At the
close of the first century there were Christians everywhere in Asia Minor.
The second century saw the establishment of flourishing churches in almost
every province of the empire. A hundred years later there were
missionaries along the Rhine, on the Danube frontier, and in distant
Britain. "We are but of yesterday," says a Christian writer, with
pardonable exaggeration, "yet we have filled all your places of resort--
cities, islands, fortresses, towns, markets, the camp itself, the tribes,
town councils, the palace, the senate, and the forum, We have left to you
only the temples of your gods." [18]

CONDITIONS FAVORING THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Certain circumstances contributed to the success of this gigantic
missionary enterprise. Alexander's conquests in the East and those of Rome
in the West had done much to remove the barriers to intercourse between
nations. The spread of Greek and Latin as the common languages of the
Mediterranean world furnished a medium in which Christian speakers and
writers could be easily understood. The scattering of the Jews after the
destruction of Jerusalem [19] provided the Christians with an audience in
many cities of the empire. The early missionaries, such as Paul himself,
were often Roman citizens who enjoyed the protection of the Roman law and
profited by the ease of travel which the imperial rule had made possible.
At no other period in ancient history were conditions so favorable for the
rapid spread of a new religion.

ORGANIZATION OF EARLY CHRISTIANITY

While Christianity was conquering the world, the believers in its
doctrines were grouping themselves into communities or churches. Every
city had a congregation of Christian worshipers. [20] They met, not in
synagogues as did the Jews, but in private houses, where they sang hymns,
listened to readings from the Holy Scriptures, and partook of a
sacrificial meal in memory of the last supper of Jesus with his disciples.
Certain officers called presbyters, [21] or elders, were chosen to conduct
the services and instruct the converts. The chief presbyter received the
name of "overseer," or bishop. [22] Each church had also one or more
deacons, who visited the sick and relieved the wants of the poor. Every
Christian community thus formed a little brotherhood of earnest men and
women, united by common beliefs and common hopes.

[Illustration: CHRIST, THE GOOD SHEPHERD (Imperial Museum, Constantinople)
This quaint, rude figure, found in an early Christian tomb in Asia Minor,
dates probably from the beginning of the third century. It is the oldest
known statue of Christ. He wears the coarse garb of an Oriental peasant;
his countenance is gentle and thoughtful; on his broad shoulders rests a
lamb.]

79. THE PERSECUTIONS

HOSTILITY TOWARD THE CHRISTIANS

The new religion from the start met popular disapproval. The early
Christians, who tried to keep themselves free from idolatry, were regarded
as very unsociable persons. They never appeared at public feasts and
entertainments. They would not join in the amusements of the circus or the
amphitheater. They refused to send their children to the schools. The
ordinary citizen could not understand such people. It is not surprising,
therefore, that they gained the evil name of "haters of mankind."

SUPERSTITIOUS FEAR OF THE CHRISTIANS

If the multitude despised the Christians, they sometimes feared them as
well. Strange stories circulated about the secret meetings of the
Christians, who at their sacrificial meal were declared to feast on
children. The Christians, too, were often looked upon as magicians who
caused all sorts of disasters. It was not difficult to excite the vicious
crowds of the larger cities to riots and disorders, in which many
followers of the new religion lost their lives.

ANTAGONISM OF THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT

Such outbursts of mob hatred were only occasional. There would have been
no organized, persistent attack, if the imperial government had not taken
a hand. Rome, which had treated so many other foreign faiths with careless
indifference or even with favor, which had tolerated the Jews and granted
to them special privileges of worship, made a deliberate effort to crush
Christianity.

ATTITUDE OF THE CHRISTIANS TOWARD PAGANISM

Rome entered on the persecutions because it saw in Christianity that which
threatened its own existence. The Christians declined to support the state
religion; they even condemned it unsparingly as sinful and idolatrous. The
Christians, moreover, would not worship the _genius_, or guardian spirit
of the emperor, and would not burn incense before his statue, which stood
in every town. Such a refusal to take what was really an oath of
allegiance was regarded as an act of rebellion. These feelings of
hostility to the Christians were strengthened by their unwillingness to
serve in the army and to swear by the pagan gods in courts of law. In
short, the members of this new sect must have appeared very unruly
subjects who, if allowed to become numerous enough, would endanger the
security of the government.

DIOCLETIAN'S PERSECUTION, 303-311 A.D.

As early as the beginning of the second century Roman officials began to
search out and punish Christians, wherever they were found. During the
third century the entire power of the imperial government was directed
against this outlawed sect. The persecution which began under Diocletian
was the last and most severe. With some interruptions it continued for
eight years. Only Gaul and Britain seem to have escaped its ravages. The
government began by burning the holy books of the Christians, by
destroying their churches, and by taking away their property. Members of
the hated faith lost their privileges as full Roman citizens. Then sterner
measures followed. The prisons were crowded with Christians. Those who
refused to recant and sacrifice to the emperor were thrown to wild animals
in the arena, stretched on the rack, or burned over a slow fire. Every
refinement of torture was practiced. Paganism, fighting for its existence,
left no means untried to root out a sect both despised and feared.