Punctuation
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Frederick W. Hamilton >> Punctuation
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TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 33
PUNCTUATION
A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT
THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION AND
THEIR USE BOTH GRAMMATICALLY
AND TYPOGRAPHICALLY
BY
FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D.
EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
1920
COPYRIGHT, 1920
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
CHICAGO, ILL.
PREFACE
This book, like the others in this Part, makes no pretense at
originality. The author has studied and compared a considerable number
of works by the best authorities on the subject and has endeavored to
adapt the best of their contents to the use of printers' apprentices.
Every author has his own set of rules. At first sight, each set appears
inconsistent with those given by other writers. This inconsistency,
however, is generally more apparent than real. It arises from
differences in point of view, method of approach, and system of
classification.
An attempt has been made to compile from these sources a set of rules
which would bring before the pupil a correct and comprehensive view of
the best current usage, well illustrated by examples and accompanied by
practical typographical hints. The fact has been kept steadily in mind
that this book is intended for a certain definite class of pupils and no
pains have been spared to fit it to their needs.
Any treatise consisting, as this one necessarily does, mainly of rules
is practically useful only as a basis for constant and persistent drill.
It is, of course, valuable for reference, but the emergencies of the
day's work leave no time for consultation. These rules must be learned,
and not only learned but assimilated so that their correct application
becomes instinctive and instantaneous. This result can be secured only
by practice. Hence the emphasis laid on the exercises indicated in the
paragraphs introductory to the review questions.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
THE COMMA 7
THE SEMICOLON 14
THE COLON 16
THE PERIOD 18
THE DASH 20
THE PARENTHESIS 23
THE BRACKET 25
THE INTERROGATION 26
THE EXCLAMATION 27
THE APOSTROPHE 28
THE HYPHEN 30
QUOTATION MARKS 31
GENERAL REMARKS 34
SUMMARY 35
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 36
REVIEW QUESTIONS 37
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 40
PUNCTUATION
INTRODUCTION
Punctuation is a device by which we aid words to tell their story. Words
have done this at times without such aid, and may now do so, but at
constant risk of serious misunderstanding. This can be easily seen by
reading the following lines printed as they would have been written in
an ancient manuscript.
WETHEPEOPLEOFTHEUNITEDSTATES
INORDERTOFORMAMOREPERFECT
UNIONESTABLISHJUSTICEINSUREDO
MESTICTRANQUILITYPROVIDEFOR
THECOMMONDEFENCEPROMOTETHE
GENERALWELFAREANDSECURETHE
BLESSINGSOFLIBERTYTOOURSELVES
ANDOURPOSTERITYDOORDAINAND
ESTABLISHTHISCONSTITUTIONFOR
THEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA
Probably this particular passage could be read without danger of serious
misunderstanding. The two well-known passages which follow, however, are
cases where either a simple statement may become a ridiculous travesty
or a serious arraignment may become a eulogy by punctuation.
Punctuate the following so as to express two very different meanings:
Lord Palmerston then entered on his head a white hat upon his feet
large but well polished boots upon his brow a dark cloud in his hand
a faithful walking stick in his eye a menacing glare saying nothing.
Punctuate the following in two ways: one to represent a very bad man,
and the other a very good man:
He is an old man and experienced in vice and wickedness he is never
found in opposing the works of iniquity he takes delight in the
downfall of his neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of his
fellow-creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the
peace of society he takes no pleasure in serving the Lord he is
uncommonly diligent in sowing discord among his friends and
acquaintances he takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of
Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize
all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil passions
he strives hard to build up satans kingdom he lends no aid to the
support of the gospel among the heathen he contributes largely to
the devil he will never go to heaven he must go where he will
receive the just recompense of reward.
Punctuation being intended for the sole purpose of making the text
intelligible and removing as many of the causes of possible
misunderstanding as may be, must depend in the last resort on a correct
understanding of the text. This understanding may be obtained from the
text itself, from the context, that is, the writing as a whole, or from
outside knowledge about the matter under consideration.
The prisoner said the witness was a sneak thief.
The prisoner, said the witness, was a sneak thief.
The meaning of this sentence depends entirely on the presence or absence
of the two commas.
Manuscript comes in to the printer hastily written by the customer,
author, or a reporter, or ticked over the telegraph wire, and there is
little or no punctuation. Probably the context will supply the needed
information and the line may be set up correctly. If there is no way of
finding out what the sentence means, follow copy. Insert no punctuation
marks which you are not sure are needed.
Punctuation as we know it is of recent invention. The practice of the
art of printing brought the necessity for a defined and systematized use
of the points which had, most of them, long been in existence, but which
had been used largely according to the personal preferences of the
scribes or copyists. With the coming of the new methods of book
reproduction came the recognized need for standardization and
systematization.
The most ancient inscriptions and manuscripts are merely strings of
letters, without spacing between words or sentences and without any
points of any sort, like the example on page 1.
The first mark to be used was the dot, or period. Its original purpose
was simply to furnish a resting place for the eye and the mind and so
help a little in the grouping of the letters into words, clauses, and
sentences, which the mind had hitherto been compelled to do unaided. It
was used at the end of a sentence, at the end of a clause, to indicate
abbreviations, to separate crowded words, especially where the sense was
ambiguous (ANICEMAN might be either AN ICE MAN or A NICE MAN), or even
as an aesthetic ornament between the letters of an inscription. In early
manuscripts the period is usually placed high ([Symbol: High Dot])
instead of low (.).
Sometimes a slanting mark (/) or a double dot (: or ..) was used to
indicate the end of an important section of the writing or even of a
sentence.
After a time spaces were introduced to show the grouping of the letters
and the words. At first the sentences were separated by spaces, then the
long words, and finally all words. In some languages, as in Italian,
there are still combinations of long and short words, such as the
combination of the pronoun with the verb, as in _datemi_, give me.
During the manuscript period different schools of copyists and even
different individuals used different marks and different systems of
pointing. For a considerable time the location of the dot indicated its
force. Placed high ([Symbol: High Dot]) it had the force of a period.
Placed in a middle position (.) it had the force of a comma. Placed low
(.) it had the force of a semicolon. The rule, however, was not
universally observed. A Latin manuscript of the seventh century has a
high dot ([Symbol: High Dot]) equivalent to a comma, a semicolon used as
at present, and a dot accompanied by another dot or a dash to indicate
the end of a sentence. A Latin manuscript of the ninth century shows the
comma and an inverted semicolon ([Symbol: Comma above Period]) having a
value between the semicolon and colon. Mediaeval manuscript pointing,
therefore, approximates modern forms in places, but lacks
standardization into recognized systems.
The spread of printing brought new needs into prominence. The early
printers used the period at the end of the sentence, the colon, and
sometimes the slanting line (/). A reversed semicolon was used as a
question mark. Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor in the printing
business in London, used five points in 1509. They were the period, the
semicolon, the comma, the "interrogative," and the parenthesis.
The systematization of punctuation is due mainly to the careful and
scholarly Aldus Manutius, who had opened a printing office in Venice in
1494. The great printers of the early day were great scholars as well.
For a very long time the chief concern of the printer was the opening of
the treasures of ancient thought to the world. They were therefore
compelled to be the students, critics, and editors of the old
manuscripts which served them as copy. They naturally took their
punctuation from the Greek grammarians, but sometimes with changed
meanings. The semicolon, for instance, is the Greek mark of
interrogation.
The period took its name from the Greek word [Greek: periodos],
periodos, meaning a division of a sentence or a thought, as we to-day
speak of an orator's eloquent periods.
The colon comes from the Greek [Greek: kolon], kolon, meaning a limb.
The comma comes from the Greek [Greek: komma], komma, from [Greek:
koptein], to cut.
The semicolon, of course, is the half colon.
The question mark was made by writing the first and last letters of the
Latin word _questio_, a question, vertically, [Symbol: q over o]
The exclamation point was made by writing the letters of the Latin word
_Io_, joy, vertically, [Symbol: I over o]
The punctuation marks now in use and treated of in this book are as
follows:
, comma
; semicolon
: colon
. period
? interrogation
! exclamation
( ) parentheses
[ ] brackets
' apostrophe
- hyphen
-- dash
" " quotation marks
Other important marks used by printers, but not, strictly speaking,
marks of punctuation, are fully discussed in the volume on
_Abbreviations and Signs_ (No. 37) in this series.
There are two systems of punctuation in use, known respectively as the
close and open systems. The close, or stiff, system, using points
wherever they can be used, is of importance in precise composition of
every sort, such as laws, contracts, legal and ecclesiastical
statements, and the like. The open, or easy, system, omitting points
wherever they can be omitted, is used generally in the commoner forms of
composition. The tendency, sometimes pushed too far, is toward an
extremely open style of punctuation. The general attitude of writers and
printers may be summed up by saying that you must justify the use of a
punctuation mark, particularly a comma, rather than its omission.
But why should the printer bother himself about punctuation at all? Is
that not the business of the author, the editor, and the proofreader?
Strictly speaking, yes, but authors generally neglect punctuation, copy
is not usually carefully edited before going to the compositor, and
proofreader's corrections are expensive. It is therefore important that
the compositor should be intelligent about punctuation, whether he works
in a large or a small office.
The question of how far the printer may go in changing or supplying the
punctuation of copy will depend largely on circumstances. If the
condition of the manuscript is such as to show that the author really
intended to put a fully punctuated, correctly spelled, and properly
capitalized manuscript into the hands of the printer, he has a right to
have his wishes respected even if his ideas are not those which prevail
in the office. In such a case the compositor should follow copy
literally. If any questions are to be raised they should be discussed by
the proofreader _with the author_. The same rule holds in the case of
manuscripts edited before being sent to the composing room. The editor
has assumed all responsibility for the accuracy of the copy. In a great
many cases the copy will come in carelessly written and wholly unedited.
In such cases the compositor should punctuate as he goes along.
This is one of the tasks which subject the compositor to the test of
intelligence. Printing is not now and never will be a purely mechanical
trade. A printing office is no place for an apprentice who can not learn
to think.
This book contains a description of the functions of the punctuation
marks and the common rules for their use. Rules for the use of
punctuation marks are very different from rules for the use of purely
material things. They are useless unless applied intelligently. No set
of rules could be devised which would work automatically or relieve the
compositor from the necessity of thinking. Punctuation can never be
reduced to an exact science.
Certain general directions should be borne in mind by writers and
printers.
I. Learn by heart the rules for punctuation.
II. Note the peculiarities of the best writers and the best printers,
especially in contemporary examples.
III. Pay constant attention to punctuation in everything you write.
IV. Punctuate your sentence while you are writing it.
V. Understand what you are printing. _This is of supreme importance._
Punctuation is an aid to understanding. You cannot correctly punctuate
anything that you do not understand.
THE COMMA
The comma is by far the most difficult of all the punctuation marks to
use correctly. Usage varies greatly from time to time and among equally
good writers and printers at the same time. Certain general rules may be
stated and should be learned. Many cases, however, will arise in which
the rules will be differently interpreted and differently applied by
different people.
The comma is the least degree of separation possible of indication in
print. Its business is to define the particles and minor clauses of a
sentence. A progressive tendency may be seen in the printing of English
for centuries toward the elimination of commas, and the substitution of
the comma for the semicolon and of the semicolon for the colon. Compare
a page of the King James version of the Bible, especially in one of its
earlier printings, with a page of serious discourse of to-day and the
effects of the tendency will be easily seen. It is part of the general
tendency toward greater simplicity of expression which has developed the
clear and simple English of the best contemporary writers out of the
involved and ornate style of the period of Queen Elizabeth. An ornate
and involved style needs a good deal of punctuation to make it
intelligible, while a simple and direct style needs but very little
help.
This progressive change in the need for punctuation and in the attitude
of writers toward it accounts for the difference in usage and for the
difficulty in fixing rules to cover all cases. The present attitude
toward punctuation, especially the use of the comma, is one of aversion.
The writer is always held to justification of the presence of a comma
rather than of its absence. Nevertheless it is quite possible to go too
far in the omission of commas in ordinary writing. It is quite possible
to construct sentences in such a way as to avoid their use. The result
is a harsh and awkward style, unwarranted by any necessity. Ordinary
writing needs some use of commas to indicate the sense and to prevent
ambiguity.
Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of
helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing
clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is
possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the
words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a
comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly
dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a
particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.
Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a
quotation.
In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets
in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.
In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto.
SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING
Boston: Boston Typothetae School of Printing.
" Industrial Arts High School.
Chicago: Lakeside Press School of Printing.
" Chicago Typothetae School of Printing.
" Lane Technical High School.
The comma is placed between the words which it is intended to separate.
When used in connection with quotation marks, it is always placed inside
them.
"Honesty is the best policy," as the proverb says.
_Rules for the Use of the Comma_
1. After each adjective or adverb in a series of two or more when not
connected by conjunctions.
He was a tall, thin, dark man.
The rule holds when the last member of the series is preceded by a
conjunction.
He was tall, thin, and dark.
The comma may be omitted when the words are combined into a single idea.
A still hot day.
An old black coat.
2. After each pair in a series of pairs of words or phrases not
connected by conjunctions.
Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,
I give my hand and my heart to this vote.
Formerly the master printer, his journeymen, even his apprentices,
all lived in the same house.
3. To separate contrasted words.
We rule by love, not by force.
4. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction.
The press was out of order, but we managed to start it.
5. Before a conjunction when the word which preceded it is qualified by
an expression which does not qualify the word which follows the
conjunction.
He quickly looked up, and spoke.
6. Between relative clauses which explain the antecedent, or which
introduce a new thought.
The type, which was badly worn, was not fit for the job.
If the relative clause limits the meaning of the antecedent, but does
not explain it and does not add a new thought, the comma is not used.
He did only that which he was told to do.
7. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the
context.
The school, you may be glad to know, is very successful.
The books, which I have read, are returned with gratitude.
He was pleased, I suppose, with his work.
If the connection of such expressions is so close as to form one
connected idea the comma is not used.
The press nearest the south window is out of order.
If the connection of such expressions is remote, parentheses are used.
The Committee (appointed under vote of April 10, 1909) organized and
proceeded with business.
8. To separate the co-ordinate clauses of compound sentences if such
clauses are simple in construction and closely related.
He was kind, not indulgent, to his men; firm, but just, in
discipline; courteous, but not familiar, to all.
9. To separate quotations, or similar brief expressions from the
preceding part of the sentence.
Caesar reported to the Senate, "I came, I saw, I conquered."
The question is, What shall we do next?
10. To indicate the omission of the verb in compound sentences having a
common verb in several clauses.
One man glories in his strength, another in his wealth, another in
his learning.
11. To separate phrases containing the case absolute from the rest of
the sentence.
The form having been locked up, a proof was taken.
12. Between words or phrases in apposition to each other.
I refer to DeVinne, the great authority on Printing.
The comma is omitted when such an apposition is used as a single phrase
or a compound name.
The poet Longfellow was born in Portland.
The word _patriotic_ is now in extensive use.
13. After phrases and clauses which are placed at the beginning of a
sentence by inversion.
Worn out by hard wear, the type at last became unfit for use.
Ever since, he has been fond of celery.
The comma is omitted if the phrase thus used is very short.
Of success there could be no doubt.
14. Introductory phrases beginning with _if_, _when_, _wherever_,
_whenever_, and the like should generally be separated from the rest of
the sentence by a comma, even when the statement may appear to be
direct.
When a plain query has not been answered, it is best to follow copy.
If the copy is hard to read, the compositor will set but few pages.
15. To separate introductory words and phrases and independent adverbs
from the rest of the sentence.
Now, what are you going to do there?
I think, also, Franklin owed much of his success to his strong
common sense.
This idea, however, had already been grasped by others.
Of course the comma is not used when these adverbs are used in the
ordinary way.
They also serve who only stand and wait.
This must be done, however contrary to our inclinations.
16. To separate words or phrases of direct address from the context.
I submit, gentlemen, to your judgment.
From today, my son, your future is in your own hands.
17. Between the name of a person and his title or degree.
Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States.
Charles W. Eliot, LL.D.
18. Before the word _of_ connecting a proper name with residence or
position.
Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.
Elihu B. Root, Senator from New York.
19. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when
informal.
Dear John,
When the salutation is formal a colon should be used.
My dear Mr. Smith:
20. To separate the closing salutation of a formal letter from the rest
of the sentence of which it forms a part.
Soliciting your continued patronage, I am,
Very sincerely yours,
John W. Smith.
21. To separate two numbers.
January 31, 1915.
By the end of 1914, 7062 had been built.
22. To indicate an ellipsis.
Subscription for the course, one dollar.
Exceptions to this rule are made in very brief sentences, especially in
advertisements: Tickets 25 cents. Price one dollar.
The foregoing rules for the use of the comma have been compiled from
those given by a considerable number of authorities. Further examination
of authorities would probably have added to the number and to the
complexity of these rules. No two sets of rules which have come under
the writer's observation are alike. Positive disagreements in modern
treatises on the subject are few. The whole matter, however, turns so
much on the use made of certain general principles and the field is so
vast that different writers vary greatly in their statements and even in
their ideas of what ought to be stated. It is very difficult to strike
the right mean between a set of rules too fragmentary and too incomplete
for any real guidance and a set of rules too long to be remembered and
used.
After all possible has been done to indicate the best usage it remains
true that the writer or the printer must, in the last resort, depend
very largely on himself for the proper application of certain
principles. The compositor may find himself helped, or restricted, by
the established style of the office, or he may at times be held to
strict following of copy. When left to himself he must be guided by the
following general principles:
I. The comma is used to separate for the eye what is separate in
thought.
The comma is not intended to break the matter up into lengths suited to
the breath of one reading aloud.
The comma is not an aesthetic device to improve the appearance of the
line.
II. The sole purpose of the comma is the unfolding of the sense of the
words.
III. The comma cannot be correctly used without a thorough understanding
of the sense of the words.
IV. In case of doubt, omit the comma.
THE SEMICOLON
The semicolon is used to denote a degree of separation greater than that
indicated by the comma, but less than that indicated by the colon. It
prevents the repetition of the comma and keeps apart the more important
members of the sentence. The semicolon is generally used in long
sentences, but may sometimes be properly used in short ones.
_Rules for the Use of the Semicolon_