Capitals
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Frederick W. Hamilton >> Capitals
Transcriber's Note:
1. Some examples does not make much sense in this text version (e.g.,
anything to do with small capitals). There is also an HTML version where
the examples are formatted to follow the typesetting of the original.
2. Italicized text is rendered as _text_, bold text is rendered as =text=.
TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 34
CAPITALS
A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT
CAPITALIZATION WITH SOME PRACTICAL
TYPOGRAPHIC HINTS AS TO
THE USE OF CAPITALS
BY
FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D.
EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1918
UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
CHICAGO, ILL.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 1
USE OF FULL CAPITALS 4
SMALL CAPITALS 17
SUGGESTIONS AS TO TYPOGRAPHIC USE OF CAPITALS 22
CAPITALS
INTRODUCTION
A capital letter is a letter of formal shape. Capitals were originally
derived from the stiff and angular letters used in formal inscriptions.
Originally all writing was done in capitals. Later the scribes devised
less formal shapes for the letters, making use of lines more easily made
by brush or pen on papyrus, parchment, or paper. The capitals were
retained for certain uses but the less formal shapes were employed to do
the greater part of the work. These less formal letters have been known
by several names. They will be referred to here by that under which they
are known to modern printers, "lower-case."
A further modification of the letter came with the introduction of the
sloping, or italic letter. This received its name from its place of
origin, Italy. It was introduced by Nicholas Jenson, a printer of
Venice, and was an imitation of the handwriting of the Italian poet
Petrarch. Originally it was used only for the lower-case and was
combined with the older form of capital letters, called roman, also from
the place of its origin. Later the italic characteristics were given to
capitals as well as lower-case letters.
An ordinary font of book type contains five series of letters: full
capitals, small capitals, italic capitals (full size), roman lower-case,
and italic lower-case. The full capital, roman or italic, is larger than
the other letters of the font, every letter being as high as the
lower-case ascenders. The small capital is only as high as the
lower-case round letters. Larger capitals still are sometimes used as
chapter initials and the like.
It will be observed that the distinction between capital and lower-case
letters is one of form, not of size. The full capitals being much more
used than the small capitals and being larger than the other letters in
the font, the impression is common that the size is the distinguishing
mark. This erroneous impression has even crept into dictionary
definitions.
The full capital, which will hereafter be called in this book simply the
capital, is used in combination with lower-case letters or with small
capitals in the same word. The small capital is not used in combination
with lower-case in the same word. We may print GEORGE WASHINGTON, GEORGE
WASHINGTON, GEORGE WASHINGTON, or George Washington, but not George
Washington.
In manuscript capitals are indicated by three lines under a word or
letter, [Symbol: triple line] and small capitals by two lines [Symbol:
double line]. A single line [Symbol: single underline] indicates that
italics are to be used.
Originally the writers of manuscripts used capitals for ornament and
variety in the text. They followed no rules but each writer was guided
by his own judgment and sense of beauty. As the use of capitals
gradually became systematized and reduced to rules, different systems
were adopted in different countries. The use of capitals varies greatly
in different languages. Attention will be mainly confined in this book
to the usages followed in the printing of English. Attempts to point out
the various differences to be found in German, French, etc. would only
confuse the young apprentice.
These rules grow out of a fundamental principle.
The purpose of capitals is to emphasize the words in which they are
employed. With the exception of the cases of the words _I_ and _O_,
which are capitalized for typographical reasons, this idea of calling
special attention to a word, or words, for one reason or another will be
found to be at the bottom of the variations in usage in different
printing offices and by different writers. The same tendency is
observable here which is so evident in style and in punctuation. Direct
statements, simple sentences as free from involution and complication as
possible, are more and more taking the place of the involved,
complicated, and obscure sentences of old times. The ideal style of
to-day consists of simple words simply arranged. Such a style needs
little pointing. The reader is quite able to find his way through the
paragraph without constant direction. Punctuation marks are directions
at the crossroads of thought. Consequently the punctuation mark is now
much more sparingly used than formerly.
Just as we have found out that well chosen words can tell their story
with very few marks of interpretation so we have found out that they can
tell their story with very few marks of emphasis. The use of capitals
has decreased greatly during the last two centuries and is constantly
decreasing, and this tendency is likely to go still further. The great
DeVinne whose books on _The Practice of Typography_, written ten to
fifteen years ago, are still of the highest authority was thoroughly
up-to-date in his methods and was remarkable for the restrained and
refined good taste which characterized all his recommendations, but in
some points restraint in the use of capitals has gone even beyond his
precepts.
It is worth while to remember that the real implement of English speech
is the word, not the point nor the letter form. Just to the extent that
we rely on marks of punctuation and emphasis to convey our meaning we
betray our ignorance of the really significant elements of the language.
The schoolgirl says she "had a _perfectly splendid_ time" at the dance,
when she tells about it in her letter to her dearest friend. If
"perfectly splendid" were a proper term to use in such a connection,
which it is not, the words themselves would carry all the emphasis
possible. Nothing could really be added to them by any typographical
device. In the same way the common use of profanity among ignorant
people probably arises mainly from a feeling that the ordinary words
with which they are familiar are colorless and do not express their
thoughts with sufficient emphasis.
Just as emphasis in style is difficult when one habitually uses the
strongest words and emphasis in voice is difficult when one habitually
shouts, so emphasis in print is difficult when one habitually uses large
capitals, display type, and italics. Loud printing is as objectionable
as loud talking.
USE OF FULL CAPITALS
General uses:
1. Use a capital letter to begin every sentence and every word or group
of words punctuated as a sentence.
_Welcome! We are glad to see you._
This rule does not apply to literal reproductions of matter not
originally conforming to it.
2. Use a capital letter to begin every line of poetry.
_The Lord hates a quitter,
But he doesn't hate him, son,
When the quitter's quitting something
He shouldn't have begun. [that_
This rule does not apply to turned over lines like the third line in the
stanza just preceding.
3. Use a capital letter to begin every quotation consisting of a
complete sentence.
_Ben Franklin says, "Honesty is the best policy."_
_The campaign was "a punitive expedition for the suppression of
brigandage."_
Capitalize:
1. Names of the Deity, of the members of the Trinity, of the Virgin
Mary, and of the Devil, when a personal devil is referred to.
When the word devil is used as a general term or as an expletive the
capital is not used.
2. Nouns and adjectives used to designate the Deity or any member of the
Trinity:
_the Almighty_, _the Ruler of the Universe_, _the Supreme Architect
of the Universe_, _the Creator_, _Providence_ (personified),
_Heaven_ (personified, e. g., _Heaven forbid!_), _Father_, _Son_,
_Holy Ghost_, _Spirit_, _Messiah_, and the like.
The following list of words of this sort to be capitalized, taken from
Mr. William Dana Orcutt's _The Writer's Desk Book_ (Frederick A. Stokes,
New York) will be found useful:
Almighty
Authorized Version
Common Version
Creator
Deity
Father
God
Holy Bible
Holy Spirit
Holy Writ
Jehovah
Jesus Christ
King
Logos
Lord
Messiah
Passover
Pentecost
Redeemer
Revised Version
Sabbath
Saviour
Scriptures
Son of Man
Son
Spirit
The Trinity
The Virgin Mary
Word
Care needs to be taken with words of this class. Particular attention
should be paid to the wording of rule 2, just given. The same words in
other senses or other connections are not capitalized. _Heaven_ and
_hell_ and derived adjectives are not capitalized in their ordinary
uses:
Adjectives and other derivatives from these words are not capitalized.
We write _Messiah_, but _messianic_ and _messiahship_; _Christology_ but
_christological_, _fatherhood_, _sonship_, and the like.
Such words as _deity_, _god_, and the like are not capitalized where any
but the God of the Bible is referred to.
3. Pronouns referring to God, Christ, or the Holy Spirit in direct
address or where there might otherwise be ambiguity.
These pronouns are not capitalized in the Bible. They are generally
capitalized in hymn books and books of devotion. These pronouns were
formerly all capitalized as a mark of respect to God whenever there was
any mention of him, even indirect. The tendency is more and more to
eliminate them except in the second person (direct address). In view of
the change now going on it is best to follow copy if the author appears
to have decided preferences.
4. Books, divisions, and versions of the Bible.
_Book of Job_, _Twenty-third Psalm_,
_New Testament_, _Revised Version_.
5. General biblical terms and titles of parables.
_The Law_, _The Prophets_, _Major and Minor Prophets_ (referring to
the collections of prophetic books), _Lord's Prayer_, _Lord's
Supper_, _Parable of the Prodigal Son_, _the Beatitudes_, _the
Priestly Code_ and many other such terms.
Use lower-case for _biblical_ and _scriptural_.
6. Capitalize _Holy_ in _Holy place_ and _Holy of holies_.
Say _Gospel of John_, but speak of the _gospel message_.
7. The names of religious bodies and their followers.
_Catholic_, _Protestant_, _Unitarian_, _Methodist_, _Buddhists_,
_Taoists_, _Lamas_.
8. The names of monastic orders and their followers.
_Jesuits_, _Brothers of the Common Life_, _Recollets_, _Crutched
Friars_, _Cowley Fathers_.
9. The word Church when it stands for the Church universal or is a part
of the name of some particular denomination or organization.
_For salvation he sought the Church._
_The Church of Rome._
_The First Presbyterian Church._
_I was on my way to church._
_He is a student of church history._ (Note use of lower-case in
this sentence.)
10. The names of creeds and professions of faith.
_Apostle's Creed_, _Thirty-nine Articles_, _Nicene Creed_.
Note that the adjective ante-Nicene is printed as it here appears.
11. The word "father" when used in direct reference to the fathers of
the church, and to the Pilgrim leaders of New England, and the word
"reformers" when used of the leaders of the Reformation.
_The ante-Nicene Fathers._
_Luther, Calvin and the other Reformers._
The word "father" is not capitalized when the reference is general, as
in the first sentence of this section.
The capitalization of "reformer" is intended to distinguish persons
connected with a certain definite historical movement from persons
interested in reform. Many persons might consider that the Reformers
were not reformers.
12. Names of persons.
_John Smith,_
_George V._
But write _John o' Groat_, _Tam o' Shanter_, and the like where _o'_ is
an abbreviation of _of_ and not the Gaelic _O'_ as _O'Neil_, etc.
In writing foreign names which contain particles, capitalize the
particles when not preceded by a Christian name or title.
_Alfred de Musset_ but _De Musset_,
_le Due de Morny_ but _De Morny_,
_Prince von Bismarck_ but _Von Bismarck_.
By exception the Dutch particle "van" is always capitalized.
_Van Hoorn_, _Stephen Van Rensselaer_.
13. Epithets appended to proper names or substituted for them.
_Frederick the Great_
_Peter the Hermit_
_William Red Head (Rufus)_
_the Conqueror_.
14. Names of races of men.
_Aryan_, _Caucasian_, etc., but generally _negro_ and _gypsy_, by
exception.
15. Names of places.
a. Cities, rivers, oceans, lakes, mountains, etc.
_Chicago_
_Mississippi River_
_Atlantic Ocean_
_Lake Superior_
_Pike's Peak_
_Strawberry Hill_.
Note that the generic terms ocean, lake, mountain and the like are
capitalized only when they are an actual part of the name itself. We
would say "_The Atlantic Ocean lies east of the United States_," but we
would say "_The states which form the North American republic look out
on two great oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific._"
The following tables are taken from _A Manual for Writers_ by John
Matthews Manley and John Arthur Powell (University of Chicago Press,
Chicago).
Subject to the rule just stated, they will be found very useful.
Capitalize, in singular form only, when immediately following the name
Archipelago
Borough
Branch (stream)
Butte
Canyon
County
Crater
Creek
Delta
Forest
Fork
Gap
Glacier
Gulch
Harbor
Head
Hollow
Mesa
Narrows
Ocean
Parish (La.)
Park
Plateau
Range
Reservation
Ridge
River
Run
Capitalize in singular or plural form when immediately following the
name
Hill
Island
Mountain
Spring
Capitalize, in singular form, either before or after the name; and in
plural form before the name
Bay
Bayou
Camp (military)
Cape
Dalles
Desert
Falls
Fort
Isle
Lake
Mount
Oasis
Pass
Peak
Point
Port
Sea
Strait
Valley
Volcano
b. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.
_Amsterdam Avenue_
_Van Buren Street_
_Independence Square_
_Lincoln Park_
_Transportation Building_.
The same rule as to capitalization of the generic name holds here as in
the preceding section. The usual tendency to drop capitals is at work
here and newspapers now write _Washington street_ and _Federal
building_. It is very probable that the capitals will finally be dropped
from the generic terms wherever used.
Printers should keep a careful watch on the usage of the best offices so
as to keep advised as to the progress of these changes.
c. Nouns, and adjectives derived from them designating recognized
geographical divisions of a country or of the world.
_East_, _West_, _North_, _South_,
_Westerner_, _Oriental_.
When these words are used in their ordinary significance of mere
direction or location they are not capitalized except that in writing of
Biblical history we speak of the _Northern Kingdom_ and the _Southern
Kingdom_ into which Solomon's territory was split after his death.
16. Generic terms for political divisions.
a. When the term is part of the name and directly follows it.
_Holy Roman Empire_
_British Empire_
_Northwest Territory_
_Queen's County_.
b. When it is used with the preposition of in such phrases as _Borough
of the Bronx_, _Department of the Gulf_.
c. When part of a nickname, _The Crescent City_, _the Buckeye State_,
_the City of Brotherly Love_.
Be careful not to capitalize such words when they are not an actual part
of the name. _French Republic_ is the name of the county, exactly
translating _Republique Francaise_, but _American republic_ is not such
a name. You would write _State of New York_ in a legal document in which
the state would be considered as a corporate person, but in ordinary
references it would be _state of New York_.
17. The days of the week and the months of the year, but not the seasons
unless personified.
_Monday the fifth of August._
_April is the first month of spring._
_Spring, beautiful Spring._
But write _ten o'clock_, _nine a.m._, _ten p.m._
18. Festivals and historic or famous days.
_Easter Day_
_Fast Day_
_Independence Day_
_Black Friday_.
19. Stars, planets, constellations, and the like, except _sun_, _moon_,
_stars_, _earth_.
_Mars_, _the Milky Way_, _the Pleiades_.
20. Ordinal numbers used to designate numbered political divisions,
sessions of Congress, names of regiments, Egyptian dynasties, and the
like.
_Second Congressional District_,
_First Ward_, _Ninth Precinct_, _Forty-third
Congress_, _Sixth Massachusetts Regiment_,
_Fifth Dynasty_.
21. Names of genera but not of species: except that in botanical and
zooelogical copy the species may be capitalized if derived from a proper
name.
_Agaricus campestris_
_Parkinsonia Torreyana_
_Pterygomatopus schmidti_, (Medical).
The English derivatives from these scientific words are not capitalized.
We write of the _agarics_, the _felids_, the _carnivores_, etc.
22. _Father_, _mother_, and other words denoting relationship when used
with a proper name or without a personal pronoun.
_I saw Aunt Lucy and Cousin Charles._
_I saw my aunt Lucy and my cousin Charles._
_I have received a letter from my mother._
_I have received a letter from Mother._
23. Names of political parties and of philosophical, literary, and
artistic schools, and their adherents.
_Republican_, _National Liberal_, _Social Democrats_, _Stoics_ (but
_neo-Platonism_, _pseudo-Christianity_, etc.) _the Lake school_,
_the Romantic movement_, _the Symbolic school of painters_.
24. Political and historical designations which have been much used and
have come to have special significances such as names of leagues,
parties, classes, movements, and the like.
_Holy Alliance_, _Dreibund_, _Roundheads_, _Independents_,
_Reformation_, _Dissenter_.
25. Names of well-known historic epochs, periods in the history of
language, and geological ages and strata. The word "age" is not
capitalized except when necessary to avoid ambiguity.
_Stone age_, _Middle Ages_, _Age of Elizabeth_, _Crusades_, _Commune
(of Paris)_, _Middle English_, _Neolithic_.
26. Names of important events.
_Hundred Years War_, _Battle of Trenton_,
_Louisiana Purchase_, _Norman Conquest_.
27. Names of specific treaties, important laws, and the like.
_Peace of Amiens_, _Edict of Nantes_, _Concordat_, _Emancipation
Proclamation_, _Fourteenth Amendment_.
28. Names of governmental bodies and departments and their branches when
specifically designated.
_Congress_, _the Senate_, _the Board of Aldermen_, _the House of
Commons_, _the Committee on Education_.
Care must be taken to distinguish between these specific references and
general uses of the same word.
_The state legislature of Massachusetts is officially termed the
General Court._
_The matter was referred to the War Department but was sent back on
the ground that it belonged to another department._
29. The official titles of corporations, organizations, and
institutions, social, religious, educational, political, business, and
the like.
_Knights Templars_, _Knights of Columbus_, _Associated Charities_,
_Cook County Normal School_, _Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals_, _Chicago_, _Rock Island and Pacific Railroad_.
In long titles, like the last example given, the important words are
capitalized as in book titles (see Sec. 31). Use capitals when referring
to such organizations by initials, _C. R. I. & P. R. R._ Here again it
must be remembered that the capitals are used in specific references
only.
_The Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor of the Third
Congregational Church._
_The young people's societies connected with the Congregational
churches do great good._
30. The names of conventions, congresses, expositions, etc.
_Parliament of Religions_,
_International Peace Congress_,
_Panama-Pacific Exposition_.
31. The first words, principal words, and last word in English tides of
books and other publications; of their divisions (parts, chapters,
cantos, etc.); of the topics of speeches, sermons, toasts, and the like;
of pictures; of plays; of musical compositions, etc.
In long titles nouns and pronouns are capitalized always; verbs,
participles, and adverbs usually; articles, prepositions and
conjunctions never.
_Standard Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases_, _Science and
Health with Key to the Scriptures_, _Lincoln's Gettysburg Address_,
_Paradise Lost_, _Measure for Measure_, _A New Way to Pay Old
Debts_, _The Coronation of Charles VII at Rheims_, _the Moonlight
Sonata_.
The word "the" is capitalized when it forms an actual part of the title
of a book but not otherwise.
_The Printer's Dictionary_. _The Life and Times of Charles V._ _the
Review of Reviews_, _the Laacoon_, _the Fifth Symphony_.
32. Dedications; headings of parts and chapters; headings of many
important minor parts of a book.
_To All Who Love Good Printing._
_Chapter Twenty-Seven._
_Part Three._
_The Invention of Movable Types._
_The Practical Value of Gutenberg's Invention._
(These last as sections of a book on the origin of printing).
33. In foreign languages the usage is somewhat different. The following
rules will be found useful:
a. Always capitalize the first word.
b. In Latin capitalize only proper nouns and adjectives derived
therefrom.
_Commentarii Caesaris de bello Gallico._
c. In French, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Norwegian, capitalize
proper names but not adjectives derived therefrom.
_La vie de Ronsard_; _Histoire de la litterature francaise_,
_Novelle e racconti popolari italiani_, _Antologia de poetas liricos
castellanos_.
d. In German capitalize all nouns and all adjectives derived from the
names of persons but not those derived from other proper nouns.
_Geschichte des deutsches Reich_
_Die Homerische Frage_.
e. In Danish capitalize all nouns.
f. In Dutch capitalize all nouns and all adjectives derived from proper
nouns.
34. Titles of ancient manuscripts.
_Codex Alexandrinus._
35. In titles of books, etc. all nouns forming parts of hyphenated
compounds should be capitalized.
36. In side heads capitalize the first word and proper nouns only.
37. Personal titles as follows:
a. Titles preceding a name and so forming part of it.
_King George V._
_Pope Benedict XV._
_Duke William of Aquitaine._
But not otherwise.
_Woodrow Wilson_, _president of the United States_, _the emperor of
Germany_, _the present king of Spain is Alfonso XIII_.
b. Titles used in place of the name with reference to a particular
person or to the present holder of an office.
_I hope when in Rome to see the Pope._
_He hoped some day to become pope._
c. Familiar names applied to a particular person.
_the Father of his Country._
_Unser Fritz._
_the Little Corporal._
d. Orders of knighthood and titles attached to them.
_Knight of the Garter_,
_Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George_.
e. Titles used in direct address.
_Good morning, Mr. President._
f. Academic degrees in abbreviated form following a name.
_David Starr Jordan, Ph. D., LL. D._
So also letters following a name indicating membership of certain
scientific and artistic organizations.
_F. R. G. S._ (Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society).
_R. A._ (Member of the Royal Academy).
So also in the United States and Great Britain, _M. C._ (Member of
Congress) and _M. P._ (Member of Parliament).
Where a person has many titles the following of this rule involves
certain difficulties. Such a name as
_John Smith, A. M., D. D., Ph. D., L. H. D., D. C. L., LL. D._ is by
no means impossible.
In such a case the titles become much more prominent than the name and
the page is disfigured by the spotty appearance of the text. Small
capitals may sometimes be used with good effect in such a case but this
should not be done without obtaining proper permission.
The difficulty of handling these long and numerous titles in the
composition of title pages is sometimes considerable. Three methods of
dealing with the difficulty are open.