Cyrus Townsend Brady - "For Love of Country"

Richard F. Burton - "The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 3"

Isabella Alden - "Ester Ried Yet Speaking"

Henry Sydnor Harrison - "Captivating Mary Carstairs"

Editorial
This paper argues that discourses of love in Ghanaian market literature for youth offer a view into complex negotiations of agency and empowerment. Drawing on Deborah Durham's notion of youth as "social `shifters'" and Francis Nyamnjoh's conception of the "interconnectedness" of agency, I take Ghanaian market literature as one specific case of how African literature for youth foregrounds questions of continuity and change as African societies enter into increasingly complex global relations. In this literature for youth, received notions of love, often constructed out of impressions from American pop and hip hop music, carry new notions of agency that compete with existing "domesticated" forms. Authors like Ike Tandoh and Evelyn Tay employ discourses of love to offer youth alternative avenues for empowerment in a context of socio-economic disenfranchizement. In a creative process of "straddling", this writing both reveals and reproduces the contradictions that obtain in youth configurations of agency.

Acetylene, The Principles Of Its Generation And Use

F >> F. H. Leeds and W. J. Atkinson Butterfield >> Acetylene, The Principles Of Its Generation And Use



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ACETYLENE

THE PRINCIPLES OF ITS GENERATION AND USE

A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON THE PRODUCTION, PURIFICATION, AND SUBSEQUENT
TREATMENT OF ACETYLENE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT, HEAT, AND POWER

Second Edition

REVISED AND ENLARGED

BY

F. H. LEEDS, F.I.C.

FOR SOME YEARS TECHNICAL EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL "ACETYLENE"

AND

W. J. ATKINSON BUTTERFIELD, M.A.

AUTHOR OF "THE CHEMISTRY OF GAS MANUFACTURE"







PREFATORY NOTE TO THE FIRST EDITION

In compiling this work on the uses and application of acetylene, the
special aim of the authors has been to explain the various physical and
chemical phenomena:

(1) Accompanying the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and
water.

(2) Accompanying the combustion of the gas in luminous or incandescent
burners, and

(3) Its employment for any purpose--(a) neat, (b) compressed into
cylinders, (c) diluted, and (d) as an enriching material.

They have essayed a comparison between the value of acetylene and other
illuminants on the basis of "illuminating effect" instead of on the
misleading basis of pure "illuminating power," a distinction which they
hope and believe will do much to clear up the misconceptions existing on
the subject. Tables are included, for the first time (it is believed) in
English publications, of the proper sizes of mains and service-pipes for
delivering acetylene at different effective pressures, which, it is
hoped, will prove of use to those concerned in the installation of
acetylene lighting systems.

_June_ 1903

NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The revision of this work for a new edition was already far advanced when
it was interrupted by the sudden death on April 30, 1908, of Mr. F. H.
Leeds. The revision was thereafter continued single-handed, with the help
of very full notes which Mr. Leeds had prepared, by the undersigned. It
had been agreed prior to Mr. Leeds' death that it would add to the
utility of the work if descriptions of a number of representative
acetylene generators were given in an Appendix, such as that which now
appears at the conclusion of this volume. Thanks are due to the numerous
firms and individuals who have assisted by supplying information for use
in this Appendix.

W. J. ATKINSON BUTTERFIELD

WESTMINSTER

_August 1909_

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY--THE COST AND ADVANTAGES OF ACETYLENE LIGHTING

Intrinsic advantages
Hygienic advantages
Acetylene and paraffin oil
Blackened ceilings
Cost of acetylene lighting
Cost of acetylene and coal-gas
Cost of acetylene and electric lighting
Cost of acetylene and paraffin oil
Cost of acetylene and air-gas
Cost of acetylene and candles
Tabular statement of costs (_to face_)
Illuminating power and effect


CHAPTER II

THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF THE REACTION BETWEEN CARBIDE AND WATER

Nature of calcium carbide
Storage of calcium carbide
Fire risks of acetylene lighting
Purchase of carbide
Quality and sizes of carbide
Treated and scented carbide
Reaction between carbide and water
chemical nature
heat evolved
difference between heat and temperature
amount of heat evolved
effect of heat on process of generation
Reaction:
effects of heat
effect of heat on the chemical reaction
effects of heat on the acetylene
effects of heat on the carbide
Colour of spent carbide
Maximum attainable temperatures
Soft solder in generators
Reactions at low temperatures
Reactions at high temperatures
Pressure in generators

CHAPTER III

THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ACETYLENE GENERATION ACETYLENE GENERATING
APPARATUS

Automatic and non-automatic generators
Control of the chemical reaction
Non-automatic carbide-to-water generators
Non-automatic water-to-carbide generators
Automatic devices
Displacement gasholders
Action of water-to-carbide generators
Action of carbide-to-water generators
Use of oil in generator
Rising gasholder
Deterioration of acetylene on storage
Freezing and its avoidance
Corrosion in apparatus
Isolation of holder from generator
Water-seals
Vent pipes and safety valve
Frothing in generator
Dry process of generation
Artificial lighting of generator sheds

CHAPTER IV

THE SELECTION OF AN ACETYLENE GENERATOR

Points to be observed
Recommendations of Home Office Committee
British and Foreign regulations for the construction and installation of
acetylene generating plant

CHAPTER V

THE TREATMENT OF ACETYLENE AFTER GENERATION

Impurities in calcium carbide
Impurities of acetylene
Removal of moisture
Generator impurities in acetylene
Filters
Carbide impurities in acetylene
Washers
Reasons for purification
Necessary extent of purification
Quantity of impurities in acetylene
Purifying materials
Bleaching powder
Heratol, frankoline, acagine, and puratylene
Efficiency of purifying material
Minor reagent
Method of a gas purifier
Methods of determining exhaustion of purifying material
Regulations for purification
Drying
Position of purifier
Filtration
General arrangement of plans
Generator residues
Disposal of residue

CHAPTER VI

THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACETYLENE

Physical properties
Leakage
Heat of combustion
Explosive limits
Range of explosibility
Solubility in liquids
Toxicity
Endothermic nature
Polymerisation
Heats of formation and combustion
Colour of flame
Radiant efficiency
Chemical properties
Reactions with copper

CHAPTER VII

MAINS AND SERVICE-PIPES--SUBSIDIARY APPARATUS

Meters
Governors
Gasholder pressure
Pressure-gauges
Dimensions of mains and pipes
Velocity of flow in pipes
Service-pipes and mains
Leakage
Pipes and fittings
Laying mains
Expelling air from pipes
Tables of pipes and mains

CHAPTER VIII

COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE IN LUMINOUS BURNERS--THEIR DISPOSITION

Nature of luminous flames
Illuminating power
Early burners
Injector and twin-flame burners
Illuminating power of self-luminous burners
Glassware for burners

CHAPTER IX

INCANDESCENT BURNERS--HEATING APPARATUS--MOTORS--AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING

Merits of incandescent lighting
Conditions for incandescent lighting
Illuminating power of incandescent burners
Durability of mantles
Typical incandescent burners
Acetylene for heating and cooking
Acetylene motors
Blowpipes
Autogenous soldering and welding

CHAPTER X

CARBURETTED ACETYLENE

Carburetted acetylene
Illuminating power of carburetted acetylene
Carburetted acetylene for "power"


CHAPTER XI

COMPRESSED AND DISSOLVED ACETYLENE--MIXTURES WITH OTHER GASES

Compression
Dissolved acetylene
Solution in acetone
Liquefied acetylene
Dilution with carbon dioxide
Dilution with air
Mixed carbides
Dilution with, methane and hydrogen
Self-inflammable acetylene
Enrichment with acetylene
Partial pressure
Acetylene-oil-gas

CHAPTER XII

SUNDRY USES

Destruction of noxious moths
Destruction of phylloxera and mildew
Manufacture of lampblack
Production of tetrachlorethane
Utilisation of residues
Sundry uses for the gas

CHAPTER XIII

PORTABLE ACETYLENE LAMPS AND PLANT

Table and vehicular lamps
Flare lamps
Cartridges of carbide
Cycle-lamp burners
Railway lighting

CHAPTER XIV

VALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF CARBIDE

Regulations of British Acetylene Association
Regulations oL German Acetylene Association
Regulations of Austrian Acetylene Association
Sampling carbide
Yield of gas from small carbide
Correction of volumes for temperature and pressure
Estimation of impurities
Tabular numbers

APPENDIX

DESCRIPTIONS OP GENERATORS

America: Canada
America: United States
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
France
Germany
Great Britain and Ireland

INDEX

INDEX TO APPENDIX



ACETYLENE



CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY--THE COST AND ADVANTAGES OF ACETYLENE LIGHTING

Acetylene is a gas [Footnote: For this reason the expression, "acetylene
gas," which is frequently met with, would be objectionable on the ground
of tautology, even if it were not grammatically and technically
incorrect. "Acetylene-gas" is perhaps somewhat more permissible, but it
is equally redundant and unnecessary.] of which the most important
application at the present time is for illuminating purposes, for which
its properties render it specially well adapted. No other gas which can
be produced on a commercial scale is capable of giving, volume for
volume, so great a yield of light as acetylene. Hence, apart from the
advantages accruing to it from its mode of production and the nature of
the raw material from which it is produced, it possesses an inherent
advantage over other illuminating gases in the smaller storage
accommodation and smaller mains and service-pipes requisite for the
maintenance of a given supply of artificial light. For instance, if a
gasholder is required to contain sufficient gas for the lighting of an
establishment or district for twenty-four hours, its capacity need not be
nearly so great if acetylene is employed as if oil-gas, coal-gas, or
other illuminating gas is used. Consequently, for an acetylene supply the
gasholder can be erected on a smaller area and for considerably less
outlay than for other gas supplies. In this respect acetylene has an
unquestionable economical advantage as a competitor with other varieties
of illuminating gas for supplies which have generally been regarded as
lying peculiarly within their preserves. The extent of this advantage
will be referred to later.

The advantages that accrue to acetylene from its mode of production, and
the nature of the raw material from which it is obtained, are in reality
of more importance. Acetylene is readily and quickly produced from a raw
material--calcium carbide--which, relatively to the yield of light of the
gaseous product, is less bulky than the raw materials of other gases. In
comparison also with oils and candles, calcium carbide is capable of
yielding, through the acetylene obtainable from it, more light per unit
of space occupied by it. This higher light-yielding capacity of calcium
carbide, ready to be developed through acetylene, gives the latter gas a
great advantage over all other illuminants in respect of compactness for
transport or storage. Hence, where facilities for transport or storage
are bad or costly, acetylene may be the most convenient or cheapest
illuminant, notwithstanding its relatively high cost in many other cases.
For example, in a district to which coal and oil must be brought great
distances, the freight on them may be so heavy that--regarding the
question as simply one of obtaining light in the cheapest manner--it may
be more economical to bring calcium carbide an equal or even greater
distance and generate acetylene from it on the spot, than to use oil or
make coal-gas for lighting purposes, notwithstanding that acetylene may
not be able to compete on equal terms with oil--or coal-gas at the place
from which the carbide is brought. Likewise where storage accommodation
is limited, as in vehicles or in ships or lighthouses, calcium carbide
may be preferable to oil or other illuminants as a source of light.
Disregarding for the moment intrinsic advantages which the light
obtainable from acetylene has over other lights, there are many cases
where, owing to saving in cost of carriage, acetylene is the most
economical illuminant; and many other cases where, owing to limited space
for storage, acetylene far surpasses other illuminants in convenience,
and is practically indispensable.

The light of the acetylene flame has, however, some intrinsic advantages
over the light of other artificial illuminants. In the first place, the
light more closely resembles sunlight in composition or "colour." It is
more nearly a pure "white" light than is any other flame or incandescent
body in general use for illuminating purposes. The nature or composition
of the light of the acetylene flame will be dealt with more exhaustively
later, and compared with that afforded by other illuminants; but,
speaking generally, it may be said that the self-luminous acetylene light
is superior in tint, to all other artificial lights, for which reason it
is invaluable for colour-judging and shade-matching. In the second
place, when the gas issues from a suitable self-luminous burner under
proper pressure, the acetylene flame is perfectly steady; and in this
respect it in preferable to most types of electric light, to all self-
luminous coal-gas flames and candles, and to many varieties of oil-lamp.
In steadiness and freedom from flicker it is fully equal to incandescent
coal-gas light, but it in distinctly superior to the latter by virtue of
its complete freedom from noise. The incandescent acetylene flame emits a
slight roaring, but usually not more than that coming from an
atmospheric coal-gas burner. With the exception of the electric arc,
self-luminous acetylene yields a flame of unsurpassed intensity, and yet
its light is agreeably soft. In the third place, where electricity is
absent, a brilliancy of illumination which can readily be obtained from
self-luminous acetylene can otherwise only be procured by the employment
of the incandescent system applied either to coal-gas or to oil; and
there are numerous situations, such as factories, workshops, and the
like, where the vibration of the machinery or the prevalence of dust
renders the use of mantles troublesome if not impossible. Anticipating
what will be said later, in cases like these, the cost of lighting by
self-luminous acetylene may fairly be compared with self-luminous coal-
gas or oil only; although in other positions the economy of the Welsbach
mantle must be borne in mind.

Acetylene lighting presents also certain important hygienic advantages
over other forms of flame lighting, in that it exhausts, vitiates, and
heats the air of a room to a less degree, for a given yield of light,
than do either coal-gas, oils, or candles. This point in favour of
acetylene is referred to here only in general terms; the evidence on
which the foregoing statement is based will be recorded in a tabular
comparison of the cost and qualities of different illuminants. Exhaustion
of the air means, in this connexion, depletion of the oxygen normally
present in it. One volume of acetylene requires 2-1/2 volumes of oxygen
for its complete combustion, and since 21 volumes of oxygen are
associated in atmospheric air with 79 volumes of inert gases--chiefly
nitrogen--which do not actively participate in combustion, it follows
that about 11.90 volumes of air are wholly exhausted, or deprived of
oxygen, in the course of the combustion of one volume of acetylene. If
the light which may be developed by the acetylene is brought into
consideration, it will be found that, relatively to other illuminants,
acetylene causes less exhaustion of the air than any other illuminating
agent except electricity. For instance, coal-gas exhausts only about 6-
1/2 times its volume of air when it is burnt; but since, volume for
volume, acetylene ordinarily yields from three to fifteen times as much
light as coal-gas, it follows that the same illuminative value is
obtainable from acetylene by considerably less exhaustion of the air than
from coal-gas. The exact ratio depends on the degree of efficiency of the
burners, or of the methods by which light is obtained from the gases, as
will be realised by reference to the table which follows. Broadly
speaking, however, no illuminant which evolves light by combustion
(oxidation), and which therefore requires a supply of oxygen or air for
its maintenance, affords light with so little exhaustion of the air as
acetylene. Hence in confined, ill-ventilated, or crowded rooms, the air
will suffer less exhaustion, and accordingly be better for breathing, if
acetylene is chosen rather than any other illuminant, except electricity.

Next, in regard to vitiation of the air, by which is meant the alteration
in its composition resulting from the admixture of products of combustion
with it. Electric lighting is as superior to other modes of lighting in
respect of direct vitiation as of exhaustion of the air, because it does
not depend on combustion. Putting it aside, however, light is obtainable
by means of acetylene with less attendant vitiation of the air than by
means of any other gas or of oil or candles. The principal vitiating
factor in all cases is the carbonic acid produced by the combustion. Now
one volume of acetylene on combustion yields two volumes of carbonic
acid, whereas one volume of coal-gas yields about 0.6 volume of carbonic
acid. But even assuming that the incandescent system of lighting is
applied in the case of coal-gas and not of acetylene, the ratio of the
consumption of the two gases for the development of a given illuminative
effect will be such that no more carbonic acid will be produced by the
acetylene; and if the incandescent system is applied either in both cases
or in neither, the ratio will be greatly in favour of acetylene. The
other factors which determine the vitiation of the air of a room in which
the gas is burning are likewise under ordinary conditions more in favour
of acetylene. They are not, however, constant, since the so-called
"impurities," which on combustion cause vitiation of the air, vary
greatly in amount according to the extent to which the gases have been
purified. London coal-gas, which was formerly purified to the highest
degree practically attainable, used to contain on the average only 10 to
12 grains of sulphur per 100 cubic feet, and virtually no other impurity.
But now coal-gas, in London and most provincial towns, contains 40 to 50
grains of sulphur per 100 cubic foot. At least 5 grains of ammonia per
100 cubic foot in also present in coal-gas in some towns. Crude acetylene
also contains sulphur and ammonia, that coming from good quality calcium
carbide at the present day including about 31 grains of the former and
25 grains of the latter per 100 cubic feet. But crude acetylene is also
accompanied by a third impurity, viz., phosphoretted hydrogen or
phosphine, which in unknown in coal-gas, and which is considerably more
objectionable than either ammonia or sulphur. The formation, behaviour,
and removal of those various impurities will be discussed in Chapter V.;
but here it may be said that there is no reason why, if calcium carbide
of a fair degree of purity has been used, and if the gas has been
generated from it in a properly designed and smoothly working apparatus--
this being quite as important as, or even more important than, the purity
of the original carbide--the gas should not be freed from phosphorus,
sulphur, and ammonia to the utmost necessary or desirable extent, by
processes which are neither complicated nor expensive. And if this is
done, as it always should be whenever the acetylene is required for
domestic lighting, the vitiation of the air of a room due to the
"impurities" in the gas will become much less in the case of acetylene
than in that of even well-purified coal-gas; taking equal illuminating
effect as the basis for comparison.

Acetylene is similarly superior, speaking generally, to petroleum in
respect of impurities, though the sulphur present in petroleum oils, such
as are sold in this country for household use, though very variable, is
often quite small in amount, and seldom is responsible for serious
vitiation of the atmosphere.

Regarding somewhat more closely the relative convenience and safety of
acetylene and paraffin for the illumination of country residences, it may
be remarked that an extraordinarily great amount of care must he bestowed
upon each separate lamp if the whole house is to be kept free from an
odour which is very offensive to the nostrils; and the time occupied in
this process, which of itself is a disagreeable one, reaches several
hours every day. Habit has taught the country dweller to accept as
inevitable this waste of time, and largely to ignore the odour of
petroleum in his abode; but the use of acetylene entirely does away with
the daily cleaning of lamps, and, if the pipe-fitting work has been done
properly, yields light absolutely unaccompanied by smell. Again, unless
most carefully managed, the lamp-room of a large house, with its store of
combustible oil, and its collection of greasy rags, must unavoidably
prove a sensible addition to the risk of fire. The analogue of the lamp-
room when acetylene is employed is the generator-house, and this is a
separate building at some distance from the residence proper. There need
be no appreciable odour in the generator-house, except during the times
of charging the apparatus; but if there is, it passes into the open air
instead of percolating into the occupied apartments.

The amount of heat developed by the combustion of acetylene also is less
for a given yield of light than that developed by most other illuminants.
The gas, indeed, is a powerful heating gas, but owing to the amount
consumed being so small in proportion to the light developed, the heat
arising from acetylene lighting in a room is less than that from most
other illuminating agents, if the latter are employed to the extent
required to afford equally good illumination. The ratio of the heat
developed in acetylene lighting to that developed in, _e.g._,
lighting by ordinary coal-gas, varies considerably according to the
degree of efficiency of the burners, or, in other words, of the methods
by which light is obtained from the gases. Volume for volume, acetylene
yields on combustion about three and a half times as much heat as coal-
gas, yet, owing to its superior efficiency as an illuminant, any required
light may be obtained through it with no greater evolution of heat than
the best practicable (incandescent) burners for coal-gas produce. The
heat evolved by acetylene burners adequate to yield a certain light is
very much less than that evolved by ordinary flat-flame coal-gas burners
or by oil-lamps giving the same light, and is not more than about three
times as much as that from ordinary electric lamps used in numbers
sufficient to give the same light. More exact figures for the ratio
between the heat developed in acetylene lighting and that in other modes
of lighting are given in the table already referred to.

In connexion with the smaller amount of heat developed per unit of light
when acetylene is the illuminant, the frequently exaggerated claim that
acetylene does not blacken ceilings at all may be studied. Except it be a
carelessly manipulated petroleum-lamp, no form of artificial illuminant
employed nowadays ever emits black smoke, soot, or carbon, in spite of
the fact that all luminous flames commercially capable of utilisation do
contain free carbon in the elemental state. The black mark on a ceiling
over a source of light is caused by a rising current of hot air and
combustion products set up by the heat accompanying the light, which
current of hot gas carries with it the dust and dirt always present in
the atmosphere of an inhabited room. As this current of air and burnt gas
travels in a fairly concentrated vertical stream, and as the ceiling is
comparatively cool and exhibits a rough surface, that dust and dirt are
deposited on the ceiling above the flame, but the stain is seldom or
never composed of soot from the illuminant itself. Proof of this
statement may be found in the circumstance that a black mark is
eventually produced over an electric glow-lamp and above a pipe
delivering hot water. Clearly, therefore, the depth and extent of the
mark will depend on the volume and temperature of the hot gaseous
current; and since per unit of light acetylene emits a far smaller
quantity of combustion products and a far smaller amount of heat than any
other flame illuminant except incandescent coal-gas, the inevitable black
mark over its flame takes very much longer to appear. Quite roughly
speaking, as may be deduced from what has already been said on this
subject, the luminous flame of acetylene "blackens" a ceiling at about
the same rate as a coal-gas burner of the best Welsbach type.

There is one respect in which acetylene and other flame illuminants are
superior to electric lighting, viz., that they sterilise a larger volume
of air. All the air which is needed to support combustion, as well as the
excess of air which actually passes through the burner tube and flame in
incandescent burners, is obviously sterilised; but so also is the much
larger volume of air which, by virtue of the up-current due to the heat
of the flame, is brought into anything like close proximity with the
light. The electric glow-lamp, and the most popular and economical modern
enclosed electric arc-lamp, sterilise only the much smaller volume of air
which is brought into direct contact with their glass bulbs. Moreover,
when large numbers of persons are congregated in insufficiently
ventilated buildings--and many public rooms are insufficiently
ventilated--the air becomes nauseous to inspire and positively
detrimental to the health of delicate people, by reason of the human
effluvia which arise from soiled raiment and uncleansed or unhealthy
bodies, long before the proportion of carbonic acid by itself is high
enough to be objectionable. Thus a certain proportion of carbonic acid
coming from human lungs and skin is more harmful than the same proportion
of carbonic acid derived from the combustion of gas or oil. Hence
acetylene and flame illuminants generally have the valuable hygienic
advantages over electric lighting, not only of killing a far larger
number of the micro-organisms that may be present in the air, but, by
virtue of their naked flames, of burning up and destroying a considerable
quantity of the aforesaid odoriferous matter, thus relieving the nose and
materially assisting in the prevention of that lassitude and anaemia
occasionally follow the constant inspiration of air rendered foul by
human exhalations.

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